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Biology Paper 1 > Topic 5 - Health, disease and the development of medicines > Flashcards

Topic 5 - Health, disease and the development of medicines Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Describe health

A

Health is described as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity

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2
Q

Describe the main difference between communicable and non-communicable diseases

A

COMMUNICABLE - can be passed from one person to another

NON COMMUNICABLE - not passed between people

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3
Q

Explain why the presence of one disease can lead to a higher susceptibility to other diseases

A

Defects in the immune system mean that an individual is more likely to suffer from infectious diseases

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4
Q

Describe what a pathogen is and how it affects you

A

PATHOGENS make you feel ill when they damage cells or change how they work, they reproduce rapidly. These include:

  • bacterium : bacteria may release toxins that make us feel ill, some types invade and destroy body cells
  • virus : viruses take over a body cells dna, making toxins or causing damage when new viruses are released from cells (these are much smaller than bacteria)
  • fungi : fungi are eukaryotic organisms
  • protist : protists are eukaryotic organisms. Many are free living but some are pathogens
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5
Q

Describe some common infections including:

  • cholera
  • malaria
  • HIV/AIDS
  • tuberculosis
  • Ebola
  • stomach ulcers
  • chalara ash die back
A

CHOLERA (caused by bacteria) - causes diarrhoea

MALARIA (caused by protist) - causes damage to blood and liver

HIV/AIDS (caused by virus) - destroys white blood cells, leading to the onset of AIDS

TUBERCULOSIS (caused by bacteria) - causes lung damage

EBOLA (caused by virus) - causes haemorrhagic fever

STOMACH ULCERS (caused by bacteria) - causes inflammation, pain and bleeding in stomach

CHALARA ASH DIE BACK (caused by fungus) - causes leaf loss, bark damage ad die back of top of tree

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6
Q

Explain how pathogens are spread and how this spread can be reduced or prevented, including:

  • cholera
  • tuberculosis
  • Chalara ash dieback
  • malaria
  • stomach ulcers
  • Ebola
A

CHOLERA - water

TUBERCULOSIS - airborne

CHALARA ASH DIEBACK - airborne

MALARIA - animal vector

STOMACH ULCERS - oral transmission

EBOLA - body fluids

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7
Q

Describe how a virus affects the host cells

A
  1. Virus attaches to host cell
  2. Virus enters cell and injects its dna or rna into the cell
  3. Virus RNA or DNA copies itself and causes new virus proteins to be made, using the organelles in the host cell
  4. The DNA or RNA and virus proteins are packaged together to make new viruses. These are released from the cell, which usually destroys the host cell
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8
Q

Describe the life cycle of a virus including the lytic and lysogenic cycle

A

Viruses infect host cells. They multiply by the lytic cycle or the lysogenic cycle.

LYSOGENIC CYCLE - virus inserts its dna into the chromosomes of the host cell, it is called a provirus, this then replicates with the rest of the host dna every time the host cell divides.

At some stage the provirus can become active and make new viruses in the lytic cycle

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9
Q

Explain how sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are spread and how this spread can be reduced or prevented, including:

  • Chlamydia (bacteria)
  • HIV (virus)
A
  • using condoms during sexual intercourse
  • screening people, including pregnant women
  • supplying intravenous drug abusers with sterile needles (hiv)
  • treating infected people using antibiotics
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10
Q

Describe how some plants defend themselves against attack from pests and pathogens by physical barriers, including the leaf cuticle and cell wall

A
  • leaves are covered with a waxy cuticle to prevent their cells from becoming infected
  • each plant cell has a cellulose cell wall which acts as another barrier against infection
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11
Q

Describe how some plants defend themselves against attack from pests and pathogens by physical barriers

A
  • leaves are covered with a waxy cuticle to prevent their cells from becoming infected and stop pest getting through
  • each plant cell has a cellulose cell wall which acts as another barrier against infection
  • some have adaptations like thorns or spikes
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12
Q

Describe how plants defend themselves against attack from pests and pathogens by producing chemicals

A

Some plants plants produce toxins and poisons to deter pests trying to eat them

Some plants produce antibacterial chemicals in response to being attacked To kill pathogens

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13
Q

Describe different ways plant diseases can be detected and identified in the field

A

VISIBLE SYMPTOMS:

  • change in appearance of plant
  • overgrowth of plant
  • under-development of part of plant
  • death of parts of the plant

Different diseases may result in different symptoms so other tests are done to determine the cause

DISTRIBUTION ANALYSIS:

  • how many plants are affected?
  • where are the diseases plants found?
  • is just one species of plant affected or several?
  • do the symptoms of the plant change over time?
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14
Q

Describe different ways plant diseases can be detected and identified in the lab

A
  • microscopic examination of plant material for signs of pathogens
  • antibodies to test for the presence of a pathogen
  • genetic testing to identify any pathogens found
  • soil sample testing to rule out any soil factors, eg nutrient deficiency
  • trying to grow pathogens on nutrient medium to produce a larger sample for identification
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15
Q

Describe how the physical barriers and chemical defences of the human body provide protection from pathogens

A

CHEMICAL DEFENCES:

  • lysozyme enzyme in tears kills bacteria by digesting their cell walls
  • lysozyme enzyme is also preset in saliva and mucus
  • hydrochloric acid in stomach kills pathogens in food and drink

PHYSICAL DEFENCES:

  • unbroken skin provides a thick barrier stopping pathogens entering
  • sticky mucus in breathing passages and lungs trap pathogens
  • cilia on the cells lining the lungs move mucus and trapped pathogens out of lungs towards throat where it’s swallowed
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16
Q

Describe the advantages and disadvantages of immunisation

A

ADVANTAGES:

  • immunity is produced without being ill
  • immunity lasts a long time, often for life
  • if most people are immune, then the few people who are unvaccinated are also less likely to catch the disease, this is herd immunity

DISADVANTAGES:

  • some people get a mild reaction of swelling or soreness, or a mild form of the disease
  • very rarely, a person has a major harmful reaction
17
Q

Explain why antibiotics can only be used to treat bacterial infections

A

This is because antibiotics inhibit cell processes in the bacterium but not the host organism.

For example some antibiotics stop bacterial cell walls forming properly. This doesn’t harm the host animal because animal cells do not have cell walls

18
Q

Explain the aseptic techniques used in culturing microorganisms in the laboratory

A 
1. STERILISING DISHES AND CULTURE MEDIA - sterilisation kills microorganisms, Petri dishes can be sterilised by autoclave great or heating to a high temperature.
Culture media (substances the microorganisms grow on) are sterilised by heating to a high temperature
  1. STERILISING INOCULATING LOOPS - the loop is sterilised in a hot flame and then cooled, before using it to transfer microorganisms to the growth medium
  2. SEALING PETRI DISHES - lid is secured to stop microorganisms from the air getting in. Vials containing bacteria must be kept covered for the same reason
19
Q

Describe the role of the specific immune system of the human body in defence against disease

A

The immune system helps to protect the body by attacking pathogens if they manage to enter the body. Lymphocytes are part of this immune system

20
Q

Explain how the lymphocytes work in the immune system with antibodies

A
  1. Each pathogen has unique antigens on its surface
  2. A lymphocyte with an antibody that fits the antigen is activated
  3. The lymphocyte divides many times to produce clones of identical lymphocytes
  4. Some of the lymphocytes produce lot of antibodies which stick to the pathogen and destroy it. Other lymphocytes stay in the blood as memory lymphocytes, ready to respond quickly if the same antigen return
21
Q

Explain the body’s response to immunisation using an inactive form of a pathogen (how vaccines work)

A
  1. A vaccine contains antigens from the pathogen, often in the form of dead or weakened pathogens (cannot cause disease)
  2. The person’s lymphocytes produce antibodies against the pathogen and also memory lymphocytes
  3. If the person gets infected by the real pathogen, the memory lymphocytes will give a very rapid secondary response to the pathogen. This means the person is very unlikely to become ill
22
Q

Explain the method of the investigation of the microbial cultures

A
  1. Turn the bacterial plate upside down and mark the base into sections - one section for each test disc. Label each section with the substance or concentration used
  2. Turn the plate the right way up. Lift the lid of the dish just enough to be able to place a disc on the lawn
  3. Use the sterile forceps to place one paper disc on to the bacterial lawn in the correct section. Then briefly flame the forceps in a blue Bunsen flame to sterilise them again.
  4. Repeat stage 3 for each disc
  5. Tape the lid to the base of the dish without completely sealing it, to avoid the risk of harmful anaerobic bacteria growing
  6. Incubate the plate for a few day at 25 degrees Celsius
23
Q

Explain the investigation of microbial cultures conclusion

A

The larger the diameter of a clear area around a disc, the better the test substance was at killing bacteria

24
Q

Calculate cross-sectional areas of bacterial cultures and clear agar jelly

A

Calculate it with the cross sectional area of each clear area using πr2

Remember to change the diameter to radius by diving by 2

25
Q

Explain the process of developing new medicines

A
  1. DISCOVERY - new medicines discovered, they are then developed through a series of stages
  2. PRECLINICAL TESTING (in the lab) - antibiotics are tested in the lab to make sure the medicine gets into cells without harming them, and damages pathogens inside cells
  3. CLINICAL TRIALS: STAGE 1 - medical drugs are prescribed to help patients who are ill (very small dose to check it isn’t harmful)
  4. CLINICAL TRIAL: STAGE 2 - patient with the disease that the new drug is developed for is given different doses of drug to test efficacy (whether it works) and to find the optimum dose (dose that works best)
26
Q

Describe the production of monoclonal antibodies

A

MONOCLONAL antibodies are antibodies that carry useful chemical markers or treatments, a set of them are identical because they are produced in large quantities from the same hybridoma

  1. B lymphocyte from mouse
    ADVANTAGES - makes particular antibodies continuously
    DISADVANTAGES - B lymphocytes don’t divide
  2. Cancer cell
    ADVANTAGES - divides continuously
    DISADVANTAGES - doesn’t make antibodies
  3. Hybridoma cell formed by fusing a B lymphocyte cell and a cancer cell. The hybridoma cell divides and produce antibodies that are all the same
27
Q

Explain the uses of monoclonal antibodies

A
  • in PREGNANCY TESTS to identify if the pregnancy hormone is present in urine. The monoclonal antibody matches the hormone and causes a reaction with an indicator
  • in DIAGNOSIS of diseases. Monoclonal antibodies can stick to blood clots or cancer cells so they can be detected. Blood clots need to be detected and treated to prevent blockage of arteries, especially in the heart and brain
  • in TREATMENT of diseases. As well as aiding detection, the way monoclonal antibodies can target specific cells can be used to target treatment
28
Q

Describe the factors affecting risk of non communicable diseases

A

SEX - female hormone has protective effects

ENVIRONMENTAL - air pollution can cause lung diseases, poisons in food and drink can damage the body

LIFESTYLE FACTORS - diet, alcohol, smoking and exercise

GENES - different alleles may be more prone to mutation or how well you absorb nutrients

AGE - the older the body, the more likely that cells may develop mutations which lead to cancer

29
Q

Explain the effect of lifestyle factors on non-communicable diseases at local, national and global levels

A
  • OBESITY can be measured by BMI or waist:hip ratio, this can be measured by using:
    — Waist measurement / hip measurement
    — weight in kilograms / (height in metres) squared
  • ethanol is poisonous to cells so it needs to be broken down, liver cells are damaged leading to liver disease
  • smoking can cause blood vessels to narrow leading to higher blood pressure leading to increased risk of cardiovascular diseases like heart attacks or strokes
30
Q

Evaluate lifestyle changes as treatment of cardiovascular

A

Doctors will advise the patient:

  • give up smoking
  • take more exercise
  • eat a healthier diet (lower fat, sugar and salt)

ADVANTAGES:

  • no side effects
  • may reduce chances of getting other health conditions
  • the cheapest

DISADVANTAGES:

  • may take time to work or may not work effectively
31
Q

Evaluate medication as a treatment for cardiovascular disease

A

If lifestyle changes don’t work medication may be prescribed, eg to reduce blood pressure

ADVANTAGES:

  • start working immediately eg to lower blood pressure
  • easy to do
  • cheaper and less risky than surgery

DISADVANTAGES:

  • need to be taken long term and can have side effects
  • may not work well with other medication the person is taking
32
Q

Evaluate surgery as a treatment for surgery

A
  • a wire frame called a stent is inserted inti the narrower part of the artery
  • sometimes heart bypass surgery is carried out, when a new blood vessel is inserted to bypass blocked coronary arteries
  • if the blood supply to the heart muscle is reduced or stopped, the heart muscle cells cannot get enough oxygen for respiration, this means the cells die and the person has a heart attack

ADVANTAGES:

  • usually a long term solution

DISADVANTAGES:

  • there is a risk the patient may not recover after
  • expensive
  • more difficult than medication
  • there is a risk the person will develop an infection after surgery

Biology Paper 1 (4 decks)

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