topic 4: identity and society

Question 1

social class

Answer 1

• a group of people who share a similar economic situation
• has major influences on life chances and on income to buy the consumer goods to support the lifestyle people aspire to
• the top 20% of income earners in Britain get over 7x the have of the bottom 20%
• social class subcultures have traditionally had a major effect on identity and people’s occupation is often a central part of how people see themselves as well as how others define them

Question 2

Bourdieu and class habitus

Answer 2

• argues that each social class possesses its own cultural framework (habitus) that the members learn during socialisation
• it includes the use of language and accents, attitudes, diet, leisure activities and consumer goods
• those who have access to the habitus of the dominant class possess what Bourdieu called ‘cultural capital’
• Lawler (2005) draws on Bourdieu’s use of the concept of ‘taste’ and how this becomes a symbol of identity and a basis for judging others

Question 3

upper class subculture and identity

Answer 3

• upper class includes: the traditional upper class (royalty and ‘the old rich’), the owners of industry and commerce (corporate rich) and stars of entertainment, media and sport
• upper class subculture includes: an exclusive upbringing, private education and secondary socialisation, high levels of cultural capital, appreciation of high culture, sense of leadership and superiority and a network of privileged social contacts (the ‘old boys’ network)
• the two groups in the ‘nouveau riche’ have acquired their wealth in their own lifetimes rather than through inheritance
• the ‘old rich’ regard them as culturally inferior
• the ‘new rich’ more commonly establish their identities through extravagant lifestyles and consumption patterns

Question 4

middle class subculture and identity

Answer 4

• largest class, refers to those doing non-manual work
• commitment to education and recognition of its importance for career success
• emphasis on individual effort, personal ambition and self help
• future orientation
• deferred gratification
• possession of cultural capital and greater respect for high culture than popular culture
• a sense of superiority over the low-culture lifestyles of wc

Question 5

traditional working class

Answer 5

• associated with traditional basic industries (eg. mining)
• has practically disappeared in Britain today as industries have closed down
• close-knit community lifestyle
• men as the main breadwinners
• collectivism (strong sense of wc identity + class solidarity)
• us against them (workers vs bosses)
• consumption of popular culture and some elements of traditional folk culture
• present orientation
• immediate gratification
• fatalism (acceptance of their situation)
• little commitment to education as qualifications were not often necessary for work

Question 6

the ‘new’ working class

Answer 6

• largest section of the working class
• a privatised, home-centred family lifestyle with little involvement with neighbours or the wider community
• instrumental approach to life and work (work is a means of making money rather than a major source of identity)
• individualism (little sense of class identity or class loyalty)
• women are more likely to be in paid employment
• consumption of popular culture
• consumer goods and lifestyle rather than work are the major influences on identity

Question 7

the underclass and identity

Answer 7

• poorest group at bottom of the social class hierarchy whose members are cut off or excluded from the rest of society
• new right theorist Murray says it consists of: high levels of lone parenthood, family instability, drunkenness, crime, drug abuse, exclusion from school, educational failure and work-shy attitudes
• this view has been taken on by the media in popular culture and is often applied to the whole white working class, not just the poorest in society
• Jones calls this the demonisation of the working class
• marxists argue the underclass is simply the most deprived section of the wc
• they regard the stereotype as a distortion of reality, designed to reinforce the dominant ideology and normality of middle class life, by making the most disadvantaged appear morally corrupt and undeserving of help
• Hoggart (1969) found strong moral values, clear sense of right and wrong and respectability in the wc community

Question 8

arguments against social class still as an important source of identity

Answer 8

• classes are now fragmented into a range of different groups
• this weakens class subcultures as a source of identity as other influences become more significant
• postmodernists see social class as outdated meta-narratives and consumer culture has replaced it as the major influence on identities
• identities are now more individualistic as people can pick and choose from a limitless range presented by the global media

Question 9

arguments for social class still as an important source of identity

Answer 9

• class remains a common social identity
• In 2021 77% of British people said that social class affects
  someone’s opportunities ‘a great deal’ or ‘quite a lot’
• social class is still the major influence on life chances
• postmodernists fail to recognise the importance of income from work which limits people’s ability to choose freely any identity and lifestyle through consumer culture
• it may seem less important but people are unable to escape its effects (eg. income and possession of cultural capital)

Question 10

gender

Answer 10

• sex refers to the biological differences between men and women
• gender refers to the socially constructed cultural differences between the two sexes learnt through socialisation
• gender roles are the different types of behaviour that socialisation leads people to expect from individuals of each gender
• gender identity is how people see themselves, and others see them in terms of their gender roles and biological sex

Question 11

significance of gender as a source of identity

Answer 11

• gender is an important source of identity as it influences how we think about ourselves and how others see and treat us
• individuals can choose the exact details of their gender identities (eg. traditional femininity, tomboys, macho men)
• the options available are not unlimited as the agencies of socialisation often promote socially approved forms of masculine and feminine behaviour which people are compelled to conform to

Question 12

gender stereotypes and hegemonic gender identities

Answer 12

• the stereotypes that the agencies of socialisation create are called hegemonic identities
• these are so dominant that it makes it difficult for individuals to assert alternative gender identities
• they represent the ‘typical’ or ‘ideal’ gender characteristics which people are compelled to conform to
  eg. men as tough, unemotional and competitive and women as gentle, emotional and concerned with appearance
• feminists emphasise how socialisation into these hegemonic identities reinforces a patriarchal culture and makes it difficult to construct identities different from the hegemonic stereotypes

Question 13

gender identity + the family

Answer 13

• Oakley identifies four processes in primary socialisation:
  1. manipulation - manipulated to adopt gender-appropriate behaviour
  2. canalisation - directed towards different toys and games
  3. verbal appellations - praised or rebuked for gender-appropriate behaviour (‘brave boy’ or ‘sweet girl’)
  4. differential activity exposure - exposed to separate activities (eg. by imitating the role models provided by their parents)

Question 14

gender identity + education

Answer 14

• gender socialisation usually occurs through the hidden curriculum
• teachers attitudes: traditionally encourage boys more in STEM, different career advice given, treating disruptive behaviour differently
• subject choice: counselled by parents and teachers into choosing different subjects

Question 15

gender identity + the peer group

Answer 15

• peer group acceptance frequently involves conformity to stereotyped masculine or feminine identities
• those who fail to do so are likely to face ridicule or bullying

Question 16

gender identity + the media

Answer 16

• media promote the ‘beauty myth’ that women should be assessed primarily in terms of their appearance
• women are shown in a limited number of stereotypes roles (eg. as sex objects, housewives, emotional and unpredictable)
• men are presented in a much wider range of roles
• advertising promotes the hegemonic identities of both men and women

Question 17

changing female identities

Answer 17

• more positive role models of strong, independent and successful women in all spheres of life (barbie movie 2023)
• women’s growing success and equality (eg. outperforming males in education)
• wider range of roles for women
• convergence or growing similarity between masculine and feminine identities
• the emergence of ‘ladettes’ (females taking on aspects of laddish masculine culture)
• marriage and parenthood in decline

Question 18

changing male identities

Answer 18

• crisis of masculinity: Mac an Ghaill argues that men’s dominant position as the breadwinner is threatened by the rise of women’s equality and independent incomes, men feel lost in their identity
• males are underachieving in education and ‘macho’ manual work is disappearing
• equal opportunities laws and policies have all weakened male power
• ‘new men’: more caring, sharing, emotional, sensitive attitudes towards women and willing to do a fair share of house work (conjugal roles)
• male bodies used as sex objects in advertising to sell things (as women’s have always been)
• growing concern with dress, appearance and personal grooming (male grooming market has grown by 800% since 1998)
• more ‘mosaic identities’ - men cherry picking elements of both masculine and feminine identities that appeal to them (more fluid + diverse identities)

Question 19

argument against gender still being an important source of identity

Answer 19

• hegemonic gender identities have become fragmented as gender has become more fluid and less significant
• postmodernists suggest people can choose any identity they like through the globalised media
• they say identity is established more by leisure and consumer lifestyle choices than by gender

Question 20

argument for gender still being an important source of identity

Answer 20

• gender stereotypes still have a huge influence on the socialisation process (those who don’t conform are deviant)
• gender is still a major influence on life chances (in 2023 the gender pay gap was 14.3%, the double burden/triple shift)
• media representations still portray traditional patriarchal gender stereotypes (ads doubled their portrayal of women in domestic settings in 2022)
• 70-80% of TV adverts have male voice overs (seen as authoritative)

Question 21

sexuality

Answer 21

• refers to people’s sexual behaviour and their sexual orientation
• it is socially constructed and what counts as ‘normal sex’ is established through socialisation
• eg. dominant sexuality in Britain’s mainstream culture is heterosexuality (hegemonic identities)
• attitudes to sexuality are formed by the agencies of socialisation
• Mulvey suggests women are subject to the male gaze, where they are viewed as sex objects in magazines, pornography and media
• religions often condemn homosexuality, promoting conformity to traditional heterosexual gender roles
• those who don’t conform may face physical or verbal abuse and discrimination

Question 22

changing sexual identities

Answer 22

• the physical appeal aspects of sexuality have become a more important part of masculinity as well as femininity
• men are beginning to face the same physical scrutiny as women always have - women have taken up the position as ‘active viewers’

Question 23

stigmatised/spoiled sexual identities

Answer 23

• individuals who adopt hegemonic gender identities may regard sexuality outside ‘normal sex’ as deviant
• those who practise them have stigmatised or spoiled identities
• this may lead to hostility, bully, mockery in the media and discrimination in employment for homosexuals
• in 2018, more than a third of LGBT staff (35%) had hidden that they were LGBT at work for fear of discrimination

Question 24

gay and lesbian identities

Answer 24

• stigmatisation of homosexual identities is reducing in Britain
• Sexual identities have become more fluid and changeable
• attitudes towards homosexuality have become more accepting
• the age of consent for gay men became the same as for heterosexual adults (16) in 2000
• in 2014 gay and lesbian couples were allowed to marry on the same basis as heterosexual couples

Question 25

evaluation of sexual identities

Answer 25

• postmodernists suggest people have more freedom to choose their sexual identities
• the norms of heterosexual behaviour are still constructed by the agencies of socialisation and homophobia is still very common (Brianna Grey?)
• women are still very much more likely than men to be seen as sex objects in everyday life
• men have more choice in choosing their sexual identities as they are not as constrained by traditional stereotypes

Question 26

ethnicity

Answer 26

• refers to the shared culture and history of a social group
• ethnic identities are established through shared physical features, dress, diet, religion etc.
• race refers to the concept of dividing people into groups on the basis of various sets of physical characteristics

Question 27

ethnicity and socialisation

Answer 27

the family: children learn ethnicity-related norms
education: by passing on culture, ethnic-based religious schooling, effects of racism in mainstream schools
religion: religious festivals, places of worship building a positive identity in a white, racist British culture
global media: enable minority ethnic communities to form identities by drawing on cultures in the countries of origin (eg. Bollywood)
peer groups: Mizra et al (2007) found that the growing popularity of hijabs amongst Muslim girls was not family/religious pressure or preserving a cultural tradition but peer pressure instead

Question 28

ethnic identities

Answer 28

white british identities: main agencies of socialisaton promote white people and their culture, do not need to assert their identities as they have power
african-caribbean identities: rooted in what Gilroy called the ‘Black Atlantic’ (a cultural network spanning Africa, America, the Caribbean and Britain) reflecting the history and legacy of slavery, often expressed through fashion and music
asian identities: Modood et al found that the identity of various asian groups is defined by cultural differences between Indian Asians, Bangladeshis and Pakistanis, dress acts as a symbol of ethnic identity
Jacobson found for many young Pakistani Muslims, Islam and its values have become central features in building a positive idnetity which they see as otherwise denied to them by a racist, Islamophobic British culture which has turned ‘Muslim’ into a stigmatised identity

Question 29

ethnicity as resistance

Answer 29

• Sewell found asserting an ethnic identity and drawing on the strengths of their cultures can be a way for people to resist racism and disadvantage
• eg. anti school black subcultures as resistance to the denial of status and the devaluing of their own culture by racism
• he found that many aspects of macho black identity were derived from the media
• the macpherson report (1999) occurred after the Stephen Lawrence case, determined that the police investigation was wholly inadequate
• the casey report (2023) occurred after the murder of Sarah Everard and found the police force was institutionally misogynistic, homophobic and racist

Question 30

new ethnicities and hybrid ethnic identities

Answer 30

• ethnicity is just one identity and individuals can adopt more than one identity depending on the context they are in (eg. an Asian identity at home; what Fanon called a ‘white mask’ identity at school/work; or multiple hybrid identities to fit into different social groups
• ethnic identities are becoming harder to identify, Hall suggests that globalisation and inter-ethnic partnerships are merging cultures and creating ‘new ethnicities’

Question 31

nationality

Answer 31

• involves the rights and responsibilities attached to being a citizen of a nation, usually based on place of birth or marriage
• a national identity is one where people identify themselves with a nation’s customs , traditions and people
• Hall suggests that every nation has a collection of stories, images and symbols which people draw on to construct and express their national identity (eg. flag/dress/music/festivals)
• Palmer discusses how a national identity is promoted and maintained by heritage tourism, using historic symbols of the nation as a means of attracting tourists (eg. Buckingham Palace)

Question 32

nationality and socialisation

Answer 32

family: where people learn common language, norms and values
education: teaches citizenship, language and history and understanding of national values
media: give higher priority to national over international news and celebrate national sporting events, rituals and ceremonies (eg. Royal Wedding, death of queen liz)

Question 33

nationality as source of identity

Answer 33

• nationality as a source of identity is fragmenting, British identity is weaker and it is difficult to identify a specific British culture shared by all citizens (no shared history)
• declining number of people identify themselves as ‘British’, adopting either English, Scottish or Welsh national identities
• this has resulted in elected assemblies for Wales and Northern Ireland and a Parliament for Scotland

Question 34

globalisation is weakening national identities

Answer 34

• postmodernists argue globalisation is breaking down the significance of national boundaries
• global popular culture, TNCs and multiculturalism expose people to other cultures
• widespread immigration means there are substantial minority ethnic groups in Britain
• Hall suggests national cultures are now replaced by cultures of hybridity with new hybrid cultures replacing national identities

Question 35

globalisation is not weakening national identities

Answer 35

• national identities may be strengthened as means of opposing globalisation and fraying of national cultures
• rise in political parties hostile to immigration seen as diluting British identity
• Britain leaving EU
• in national sporting events, national identities are strongly asserted

Question 36

disability

Answer 36

• Shakespeare distinguishes between impairment (some loss of functioning of the mind or body) and disability (where an impairment prevents people from carrying out day to day activities)
• the attachment of the disable label may generate a disabled identity among those with impairments
• the social model of disability suggests disability is socially constructed by the barriers which turn an impairment into a disability (eg. inaccessible environments, disabling identities imposed by negative media stereotypes)

Question 37

disability and socialisation

Answer 37

• most people form their views about disability through socialisation rather than personal experience
• Barnes suggests the media show negative stereotypes of disabled people (dependent on others, unable to contribute to society, non-sexual, pitied)
• disability can become an identity marking people out as different from others, with negative consequences (discrimination, patronising or mocking, dismissive attitudes from others)

Question 38

stigmatised/spoiled disabled identities

Answer 38

• attachment of the label of ‘disabled person’ carries stigma which prevents people from achieving full social acceptance
• disabled people may fail at Goffman’s ‘impression management’ as stereotypes can undermine their ability to impress anything other than a disabled identity
• disability then becomes their master status, overriding all other aspects of their identity
• the disabled label can become an identity of exclusion

Question 39

age

Answer 39

• age is a social construction so the identity allocated to people is created by the individual, social and cultural interpretations of people and not simply biology
• expectations of different age groups impact on how others see and define them and their status
• social attitudes to people of different ages can change over time

Question 40

age and identity

Answer 40

• there are broad cultural stereotypes bout the lifestyles of different age groups, often promoted by the media
• age groups are a form of social and individual identity
• Bradley suggests age becomes a particularly significant aspect of identity in two age groups: the young (teenager) and older retired people

Question 41

older people and identity

Answer 41

• retirement brings loss of identity from work
• older people today are healthier, more active and more affluent but British society tends to cling to misleading stereotypes of the elderly as dependent, inactive and passive
• there is now a diversity of older identities ranging from ‘young old’ etc.
• experiences of old age can vary widely depending on class, ethnicity etc.

Question 42

active ageing and the third age

Answer 42

• increasing life expectancy, better health and freedom have created a new gen of retired people who can find fulfilment in the ‘third age’
• active ageing is a new identity for retired people in this third age which involves a diversity of new lifestyles based on self-development and individualism (eg. unpaid volunteering)
• opportunities for a fulfilling ‘third age’ may vary and poverty is still found amongst the elderly, making it harder for some to establish alternative identities through leisure and consumption choices

Question 43

old age as stigmatised identity

Answer 43

• ageism: prejudice and discrimination because of age
• negative media portrayals, losing or not finding jobs because of age
• In one study in 2023, 36% of employees over 50 reported they had been disadvantaged at work because of their age
• Equality Act 2010 banned age discrimination
• prevents old people from establishing identities other than that of simply being the ‘old person’ (becomes a stigmatised identity)

Question 44

young people and identity

Answer 44

• peer group is often their most significant source of identity, with leisure-based activities and consumer lifestyles
• have sometimes been formed and repressed by youth subcultures (eg. hippies, goths, ravers etc.)

Question 45

youth subcultures

Answer 45

• provide distinctive youth identities
• youth styles act as symbols which distinguish young people from the dominant culture and from other youth subcultures
• functionalists see youth subcultures as a normal way of dealing with status frustration that arises between childhood and young adulthood (they enable young people to carve out an identity separate from that established by family or school)
• marxists explain the diversity of subcultures in terms of their social class (Hall and Jefferson saw working class youth subcultures as subcultures of resistance)
• interactionists saw youth subcultures are manufactured by media stereotyping, exaggeration of the activities of young people who are often represented only as anti-social troublemakers
• feminists (McRobbie) say youth subcultures of the 70s and 80s were male dominated as girls were not involved due to gender role socialisation and stricter control + concerns of safety
• McRobbie found girls’ subculture were formed in the private sphere of the hime through ‘bedroom culture’
• contemporary young women are now more involved with youth subcultures with females going out more frequently and more involved in dance and drug subcultures
• postmodernists reject the concept of youth subcultures (metanarratives) which try to fit young people’s identity into the social structural boxes of age, class etc. instead they pick and choose from the endless range of possibilities in a media saturated consumer society presented by the globalised media (neo-tribalism)