Topic 4 - Gender Differences in Education

Question 1

What are the 4 external factors that lead to gender differences in achievement ?

Answer 1

1. The impact of feminism
   2.Changes in the Family
   3.Changes in Women’s employment
   4.Girls changing ambitions

Question 2

External factors - the impact of Feminism - how is this shown in McRobbie’s study ?

Answer 2

-McRobbie’s study of girls’ magazines
-In the 1970s they emphasized the importance of getting married and not being left on the shelf , whereas nowadays they contain images of assertive , independent women
-This leads girls to have an increased self image and ambitions with regard to their families and careers . This helps to explain improvements in girls educational achievement.

Question 3

External factors - changes in the family - What are some of the major changes in the family since the 1970s ?

Answer 3

Changes in the family since the 1970s include ;
-An increase in the divorce rate
-An increase in cohabitation and a decrease in the number of first marriages
-An increase in the number of lone parent families
-Smaller families

Question 4

External factors - changes in the family - How are the changes in families since the 1970s affecting girls ?

Answer 4

-The changes in the family are affecting girls’ attitudes towards education in a number of ways
-For Example , increased numbers of female headed lone parent families may mean that women need to take on the breadwinner role. This creates a new adult role model for girls - the financial independent women. This means girls need to get well paid jobs so need to get good qualifications so try harder at school
-Likewise the increase in divorce rate suggests that it is unwise to rely on a husband to provide so this encourages girls to look to themselves and their own qualifications to make a living

Question 5

External factors - Changes in Women’s employment - what are some of the changes in women’s employment in the recent decades ?

Answer 5

-The 1970 Equal pay act makes it illegal to pay women less than men for work of equal value
-Since 1975 , the pay gap between men and women has halved from 30% to 15%
-The proportion of women in employment has risen from 53% in 1971 to 67% in 2013
-Some women are now breaking through the glass ceiling - the invisible barrier that jeeps them out of high level professional and managerial jobs

Question 6

External factors - Changes in Women’s employment - How have changes in women’s employment led to gender differences in achievement ?

Answer 6

-Changes in women’s employment has encouraged girls to see their futures in terms of paid work rather than as housewives
-Greater career opportunities and better pay for women provide an incentive for girls to gain qualifications

Question 7

External Factors - Girls changing ambitions - How did Sharpe’s study show that girls ambitions are changing ?

Answer 7

-Sharpe’s interviews with girls in the 1970s and 1990s shows a major shift in the way that girls see their future
-In 1974 , the girls had low aspirations - they believed educational success was unfeminine and that appearing to be ambitious would be unattractive . They gave their priorities as Love , Marriage , Husbands , Children , Jobs then careers
-By the 1990s the girls ambitions had changed and they had a different order of priorities - careers and being able to support themselves. Sharpe found that girls were now more likely to see their future as an independent woman with a career rather than as dependent on their husbands and his income

Question 8

How did Reay find that some girls ambitions didn’t change due to their class so they underachieved ?

Answer 8

-Working class girls continue to have gender stereotyped aspirations for marriage and children and expect to go into traditional low paid women’s work
-Reay argues that this reflects the reality of the girls class position. Their limited aspirations reflect the limited job opportunities they perceive as being available to them

Question 9

what did Biggart find as reasons for why working class girls underachieve ?

Answer 9

• found that working class girls are more likely to face a precarious position in the labour market and to see motherhood as the only viable option for the future
  -Hence they see less point in achieving in education

Question 11

What are the 6 internal factors which lead to gender differences in achievement ?

Answer 11

1.Equal opportunity polices
2.Positive role models in schools
3.GCSE and Coursework
4.Teacher attention
5.Challenging stereotypes in the curriculum
5.Selection and league tables

Question 12

Internal factors - Equal opportunity policies - what are 2 examples and what do they do ?

Answer 12

-GIST -( girls into science and technology )
-WISE - (women into science and engineering )
Encourage girls to pursue careers in non traditional areas
Female scientists have visited schools acting as role moulds and non sexist careers advice has been given to help girls interest develop

Question 13

Internal factors - equal opportunity policies - how did the introduction of the national curriculum in 1998 remove gender equality ?

Answer 13

-the introduction of the national curriculum in 1998 removed one source of gender inequality by making girls and boys study the same subjects which wasn’t the case previously

Question 14

Internal factors - positive role models in schools - what has there been an increase in and how does this affect girls achievement ?

Answer 14

-there has been an increase in the proportion of female teachers and headteachers
-These women in senior positions may act as role models for girls showing them women can achieve positions of importance and giving them non traditional goals to aim for

Question 15

Internal factors - GCSE and coursework - how does Gorard argue that the introduction of GCSEs and coursework favoured girls but disadvantaged boys ?

Answer 15

• Gorard found that the gender gap in achievement was fairly constant from 1975-1989 when it increased sharply
  -This was the year GCSEs were introduced , bringing with it coursework
  -Gorard concludes that the gender gap in achievement is a product of the changed system of assessment rather than any more general failing of boys

Question 16

Internal factors - GCSEs and Courswork - how does Gorard argue mitsos and Browne support Gorards view that girls are more successful in coursework ?

Answer 16

-Mitsos and Browne argue that girls are more successful in coursework because they are more conscientious and better organised than boys , girls ;
Spend more time on their work
Take more care with the way it’s presented
Are better at meeting deadlines
Bring the right equipment and materials to lessons

Question 17

Internal factors - GCSEs and Coursework - how does Elwood criticise the view that coursework leads to girls over achieving and boys underachieving ?

Answer 17

Elwood argues that Although coursework has had some influence , it is unlikely to be the only cause of the gender gap because exams have much more influence than coursework on the final grades

Question 18

Internal factors - Teacher attention - what did Jane and French find from their study ?

Answer 18

-Jane and French analysed classroom interaction , they found that boys received more attention because they attracted more reprimands

Question 19

Internal factors - teacher attention - What did Francis find from their study ?

Answer 19

-Francis also found that while boys got more attention , they were disciplined more harshly and felt picked on by teachers , who tended to have low expectations of them

Question 20

Internal factors - teacher attention - what did Swann find from their study ?

Answer 20

-Swann found gender differences in communication styles , boys dominate in whole class discussion , whereas girls prefer pair work and group work and are better at listening and cooperating
-When working in groups girls take turns and don’t interrupt each other like boys

Question 21

Internal factors - teacher attention - what was the result of differences in teacher attention found from these multiple studies ?

Answer 21

-This helps to explain why teachers respond more positively to girls who they see as cooperative and they see boys as disruptive
-may lead to the self fulfilling prophecy in which successful interactions with teachers promote girls self esteem and raise their achievement levels

Question 22

Internal factors - Challenging stereotypes in the curriculum - what is an example of how we have done this shown by Weiner ?

Answer 22

-the removal of gender stereotypes from textbooks ,reading schemes and other learning materials has removed a barrier from girls achievement
-Weiner argues that since the 1980s , teachers have challenged such stereotypes and in general sexist images have been removed from learning materials which has helped to raise girls achievement by presenting them with more positive images of what women can do

Question 23

Internal factors - Selection and League tables - how does Jackson believe the introduction of league tables has improved opportunities for girls ?

Answer 23

Jackson notes that the introduction of exam league tables has improved opportunities for girls as high achieving girls are attractive to schools , whereas low achieving boys aren’t , this tends to create a self fulfilling prophecy because girls are more likely to be recruited by good schools so more likely todo well in school

Question 24

Internal factors - selection and league tables - why does Slee argue boys are less attractive to schools ?

Answer 24

Slee argues that boys are less attractive to schools because they are more likely to suffer from behavioural difficulties and more likely to be excluded
As a result , boys are seen as liability students - obstacles to the school improving its league tables position

Question 25

What is the view of girls achievement put forward by liberal feminists ?

Answer 25

-Liberal feminists celebrate the progress made son fair in improving girls achievement -They believe that further progress will be made by continuing development of equal opportunity policies, encouraging positive role models and overcoming sexist attitudes and stereotypes

Question 26

What is the view of girls achievement put forward by radical feminists ?

Answer 26

-radical feminists take a more critical view compared to liberal feminists -while they recognise that girls are achieving more , they emphasise that the system remains patriarchal (male dominated ) and the conveys the clear message that it is still a mans world . For example ; -sexual harassment of girls continues in schools -education still limits girls subject choices and career options -although there are now more female head teachers , male teachers are still more likely to become heads of secondary schools -women are under represented in many areas of the curriculum eg their contribution to history is largely ignored

Question 27

What are the 3 strategies that working class girls followed in order to gain status from their peers rather than school according to Archer ?

Answer 27

-Hyper heterosexual feminine identity -Having a boyfriend -Being loud

Question 28

Archer - Hyper heterosexual feminine identities - what is meant by this and what does it lead to ?

Answer 28

-many of these girls invested considerable time , effort and money into constructing desirable and glamorous hyper heterosexual feminine identities -For example , one girl spent all of her £40 a week she earned from babysitting on her appearance -this brought status from their female peer groups and avoided them being ridiculed or being called a tramp for wearing the wrong brand -However , it brought them conflict with the school such as being punished for wearing the wrong clothing and makeup and so on as saw their identities as preoccupying them from engaging with education -This led to the school defining the girls as incapable of education success and thus less worthy of respect -Bourdieu calls this symbolic violence (harm done through denying someone symbolic capital ) through defining their culture as worthless

Question 29

Archer - Having boyfriends - overview what having boyfriends led to for these working class girls ?

Answer 29

-while having a boyfriend brought the girls symbolic capital , it got in the way of schoolwork and lowered girls aspirations such as losing interest in going to university , studying masculine subjects such as science and maths or gaining a professional career -these girls aspired to settle down , have children and work locally in working class feminine jobs such as childcare . One girl had to drop out of school due to becoming pregnant

Question 30

Archer - being loud - what is meant by this ?

Answer 30

-working class girls adopted loud feminine

Question 31

Archer - being loud -what did archer mean by this and what did it lead to ?

Answer 31

-some work oh class girls adopted loud feminine identities that often led them to be outspoken , independent and assertive . For example , questioning teachers authority . -This failed to conform to the schools stereotype of the ideal female pupil identity as brought conflict with teachers who interpreted their behaviour as aggressive

Question 32

What is the working class dilemma ?

Answer 32

Working class girls are thus faced with a dilemma ; -either gaining symbolic capital - from their peers by conforming to hyper heterosexual identities -or gaining educational capital by rejecting their working class identity and conforming to the schools middle class notions of a respectable , ideal female pupil identity

Question 33

How did Evan’s study show that even working class girls who do succeed in education are disadvantaged by their gender and class identities ?

Answer 33

-Evan’s shows this in her study of 21 working class sixth form girls in a south London comprehensive school -she found that the girls wanted to go to university to increase their earning power but this wasn’t for themselves but their families -the girls motivation reflected their working class feminine identities -girls also wanted to live at home due to costs and having a strong preference for their local surroundings but this limited their options and degrees they could get

Question 35

What are 2 external factors that lead to boys underachievement ?

Answer 35

-boys and literacy -globalisation and the decline of traditional men’s jobs

Question 36

External factors - boys and literacy - what are the reasons for boys poor literacy skills according to the DCSF. ?

Answer 36

-one reason is that parents spend less time reading to their sons -Another reason is that it is mothers that do most of the reading to young children , thus reading becomes to be seen as a feminine identity -Another reason is boys leisure pursuits Such as football which do little to help develop their language and communication skills by contrast girls have a bedroom culture centred on staying in and talking to friends

Question 37

External factors - Globalisation and the decline of traditional men’s jobs - overview ?

Answer 37

-since the 1980s there has been a significant decline in heavy industries such as iron and steel , mining and engineering -This has been partly due to the globalisation of the economy , which has led to the manufacturing industry to relocate to developing countries such as china to take advantage of cheap labour

Question 38

External factors - Globalisation and decline of traditional men’s jobs - what do Mitsos and Browne argue that the decline in male employment opportunities has led to ?

Answer 38

-Mitsos and Browne claim that the decline in male employment opportunities has led to an identity crisis for men -many boys now believe that they have little prospect of getting a proper job -this undermines their motivation and self esteem and so they give up trying to get qualifications

Question 39

What are 3 internal factors that lead to boys underachievement ?

Answer 39

-feminisation of education -shortage of male primary school teachers -Laddish subcultures

Question 40

Internal factors - feminisation of education - how does Sewell use the feminisation of education to explain boys underachievement ?

Answer 40

-Sewell reported that boys fall behind because education has become feminised -that is that schools do not nurture masculine traits such as competitiveness and leadership -Instead they celebrate the qualities more closely associated with girls

Question 41

Internal factors -shortage of male primary school teachers - what did Yougov find about how many boys have a male teacher and how this would impact them ?

Answer 41

-Yougov found that 39% of 8-11 year old boys had no lesson whatsoever with a male teacher yet most boys surveyed said the presence of a male teacher would make them behave better and 42% said it would make them work harder

Question 42

Internal factors - shortage of male primary school teachers - what is a reason that male teachers would be better for boys ?

Answer 42

-some argue that female teachers are unable to control boys behaviour -in this view , male teachers are better able to impose the strict discipline that boys need in order to concentrate which would help them succeed

Question 45

What does Francis use as a criticism that more male teachers aren’t needed and shortage of male teachers isn’t a cause of boys underachievement ?

Answer 45

-Francis found that 2 two thirds of 7-8 year olds believed that the gender of their teacher didn’t matter

Question 46

What are the 2 types of discourse (language )that Read identifies which that shows they are critical of the claim that the culture of primary schools is becoming feminised and that only male teachers can exert the firm discipline that boys need to achieve ?

Answer 46

-to test these claims , Read studied the type of language teachers use to express criticism or disapproval of pupils work and behaviour She identifies 2 types of language or discourse ; -disciplinarian discourse - teachers authority is made explicit and visible eg through shouting -Liberal discourse - teachers authority is implicit and invisible , the teacher speaks to the pupil as if they were an adult and expects them to be kind , sensible and respectful of the teacher The disciplinarian discourse is usually associated with masculinity and liberal with femininity

Question 47

What did Read find from her study of the 2 types of discourse - how does this criticise Sewell view that education has become feminised and female teachers don’t provide the environment for boys to thrive ?

Answer 47

-In Reads study of 51 primary schools . She found that most teachers , female as well as male used the supposedly masculine disciplinarian discourse in order to control pupils behaviour -the fact that most teachers favoured a masculine disciplinarian discourse of control disproves the claim that the culture of the primary school has become feminised as Sewell argues -the fact that female teachers were just as likely as males to use masculine discourse to control pupils behaviour disproves the claim that only male teachers can provide the stricter classroom culture in which boys are said to thrive

Question 48

Internal factors -laddish subcultures - how did Epsteins study show laddish subcultures lead to boys underachievement ?

Answer 48

-Epstein examined the way masculinity is constructed within school -she found that working class boys are likely to be harassed , labelled as sissies and subjected to homophobic (anti gay) verbal abuse if they appear to be swots

Question 49

What does feminist ringrose say about the moral panic of boys and what has this lead to ?

Answer 49

-many now believe that girls now succeed at the expense of boys , who are now disadvantaged -This has led to a moral panic about boys -This moral panic reflects a fear that underachieving working class boys will grow up to become a dangerous , unemployable underclass that threaten social stability -ringrose argues that this moral panic has caused a major shift in educational policy , which is now preoccupied with raising boys achievement

Question 50

What is a criticism that boys are a lost cause ?

Answer 50

-It is wrong to conclude that boys are a lost cause because the performance of both sexes has actually improved considerably in recent years , boys may still be behind girls but boys today are achieving more than they did in the past

Question 51

What are the 4 explanations of gender differences in subject choice ?

Answer 51

1.Gender role socialisation 2.Gendered subject images 3.Gender identity and peer pressure 4.Gendered career opportunities

Question 52

What is meant by gender role socialisation ?

Answer 52

Gender role socialisation is the process of learning the behaviour expected of males and females in society

Question 53

Explaining gender differences in subject choice - gender role socialisation - how did Norman show gender socialisation as leading to this ?

Answer 53

-early socialisation shapes children’s gender identity -Norman notes that from an early age , boys and girls are dressed differently , given different toys and encouraged to take part in different activities

Question 54

Explaining gender differences in subject choice - Gender role socialisation - how does Bryce show difference in socialisation leads to difference in subject choice ?

Answer 54

-Bryne shows that teachers encourage boys to be tough and show initiative and not be weak or behave like sissies -girls on the other hand are expected to be quiet , helpful , clean and tidy leading them to develop different tastes in reading

Question 55

Explaining gender differences in subject choice - gender role socialisation - what do Murphy and Elwood find that gender role socialisation leads to ?

Answer 55

-Murphy and Elwood show how these differences in gender role socialisation lead boys and girls to develop different tastes in reading which leads to choosing different subjects -Boys read hobby books and information texts , helps explain why boys like science subjects -Girls read stories about people , helps explain why girls like subjects such as English

Question 56

What are gender domains ?

Answer 56

-gender domains - tasks and activities that boys and girls see as male or female territory and therefore as relevant to themselves -for example , mending a car is seen as falling within the male gender domain but looking after a sick child isn’t

Question 57

Explaining gender differences in subject choice - gender role socialisation - Gender domains - what do Browne and Ross believe gender domains are shaped by and how does this link to gendered subject choices ?

Answer 57

-Browne and Ross argue that children’s beliefs About gender domains are shaped by their early experiences and the expectations of adults -children are more confident when engaging in tasks that they see as part of their gender domain -for example when doing a maths task , boys are more confident with it’s about cars whereas girls are more confident when it’s about food and nutrition

Question 58

What is meant by gendered subjects images ?

Answer 58

-the gender image of a subject affects who will want to choose it -Sociologists have tried to explain why some subjects are seen as boys or girls subjects in the first place

Question 59

Explaining gender differences in subject choice - gendered subject choices - what are the 3 reasons that Kelly gives to help explain why science is seen as a boys subject ?

Answer 59

-science teachers are more likely to be men -the examples teachers use and those in textbooks often to draw on boys rather than girls interests -in science lessons , boys monopolise the apparatus and dominate the laboratory as though it is theirs

Question 60

Explaining gender differences in subject choice - Gendered subjects images - what are the 2 reasons that Colley gives to as why computer studies is a masculine subject ?

Answer 60

-it involves working with machines - part of the male gender domain -the way it is taught is off putting to females , tasks tend to be abstract and teaching styles formal with few opportunities for group work , which girls favour

Question 61

Explanation of gender differences in subject choices - gendered subjects images - single sex schooling - what did Leoards study find happened to subject choices in a single sex school ?

Answer 61

-Leonard found that compared to pupils in a mixed school , girls in an all girls school were more likely to take maths and science A levels while boys in all boys schools were more likely to take English and languages -Girls from a single sex schooling were also more likely to study male dominated subjects at university

Question 62

Explaining gender differences in subject choice - gender identity and peer pressure - how does peer pressure lead to differences in subject choice ?

Answer 62

-subject choice is often influenced by peer pressure -Other girls and boys may apply pressure to an individual if they disapprove of his or her choice -For example , boys tend to opt out of music and dance because such activities fall outside of their gender domain and so are likely to attract a negative response from peers

Question 63

Explaining gender differences in subject choice - gender identity and peer pressure - what did Dewar find would happen to girls who were interested in sport ?

Answer 63

-through Dewars study at an American college she found that male students would call girls lesbian if they appeared to be interested in sport

Question 64

Explaining gender differences in subject choices - gendered career opportunities - what is meant by this ?

Answer 64

-jobs tend to be sex types as men’s or women’s -women’s jobs involve work similar to that of a housewife such as childcare and nursing -this sex typing of occupations affects boys and girls ideas about what kind of job are acceptable eg boys get the message that nursery nurses are female so less likely to opt for a course in childcare

Question 65

What are 6 ways that pupils experiences in schools help to construct and reinforce their gender and sexual identities ?

Answer 65

1.Double standards 2.Verbal abuse 3.the male gaze 4.male peer groups 5.Female peer groups - policing identity 6.Teachers and discipline

Question 66

What is meant by double standards ?

Answer 66

-double standards exist when we apply one set of moral standards to one group but a different set to another group

Question 67

Double standards - what is a double standard which lees identifies ?

Answer 67

-Lees identifies a double standard of sexual morality in which boys boast about their sexual exploits , but call a girl a slag if she doesn’t have a steady boyfriend or if she dresses and speaks in a certain way -sexual conquest is approved of and given status by male peers and ignored by male teachers but promiscuity among girls attracts negative labels

Question 68

Double standards - what do feminists see double standards as ?

Answer 68

-feminists see double standards as an example of a patriarchal ideology that justifies male power and devalues women -double standards can be seen as a form of social control that reinforces gender inequality by keeping females subordinate to males

Question 69

Verbal abuse - what is an example of verbal abuse that lees found ?

Answer 69

-Lees found that boys called girls slags if they appeared to be sexually available and drags if they didn’t

Question 70

The male gaze - what does mac an Ghail mean by the male gaze ?

Answer 70

-there is a visual aspect to the way pupils control each others identities -mac an Ghail refers to this as the male gaze , the way male pupils and teachers look girls up and down , seeing them as sexual objects and making judgements about their appearance

Question 71

The male gaze - how does mac an Ghail see the male gaze as a form of surveillance ?

Answer 71

-Mac an Ghail sees the male gaze as a form of surveillance through which the dominant heterosexual masculinity is reinforced and femininity devalued -It is one of the ways boys prove their masculinity to their friends and is often combined with constant telling and retelling of stories about sexual conquests -Boys who don’t display their heterosexuality in this way run the risk of being labelled as gay

Question 72

Male peer groups - how does Epstein and Willis study show male peer groups use verbal abuse to reinforce their definitions of masculinity ?

Answer 72

For example, studies by Epstein and Willis show how boys in anti school subcultures often accuse boys who want to do well at school of being gay or effeminate

Question 73

Female peer groups - policing identity - what was ringrose study about and what did she find girls faced a tension between ?

Answer 73

-Ringroses small scale study of 13-14 year old working class girls peer groups found that being popular was crucial to the girls identity -as the girls made a transition from a girls’s friendship culture into a heterosexual dating culture , they faced a tension between ; -An idealised feminine identity - of showing loyalty to the female peer Group , being non competitive and getting along with everybody in the friendship culture -a sexualised identity that involved competing for boys in the dating culture

Question 74

Female peer groups - Policing identity - what did currie et al study find but what do girls have to perform a balancing act between ?

Answer 74

-currie et al argue that while relationships with boys can gain girls symbolic capital , this is a high risk game -This is because girls are forced to perform a balancing act between these 2 identities ; -girls who are too competitive and think of themselves better than their peers risk slut shaming - being labelled as sluts and excluded from their friendship culture -on the other hand , girls who don’t compete for boyfriends may face frigid shaming by the other girls Shaming is thus a social control device by which schoolgirls police , regulate and discipline each others identities

Question 75

What did Reay find that girls have to do if they want to be educationally successful ?

Answer 75

-Reay found that girls who want to be successful educationally may feel the need to conform to the schools notion of the ideal feminine pupil identity -Reay found this involved the girls having to perform an asexual identity , presenting themselves as lacking any interest in boyfriends or popular fashion (a boffin identity)

Question 76

Teachers and discipline - how does Haywood and Mac an Ghail study show how teachers play a part in reinforcing dominant definitions of gender identity ?

Answer 76

-Haywood and Mac an Ghail found that male teachers told boys off for behaving like girls and teased boys when they gained lower marks in tests compared to girls -teachers tended to ignore boys verbal abuse of girls and even blamed girls for attracting it

Question 77

Teachers and discipline - how does male teachers behaviour reinforce dominant definitions of gender identity according to Askew and Ross?

Answer 77

-Askew and Ross show how male teachers behaviour can subtly reinforce messages about gender -for example ,male teachers often have a protective attitude towards female colleagues , coming into their classes to rescue them by threatening pupils who are being disruptive -This reinforces the idea that women cannot cope alone