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A LEVEL BIO > topic 3B - more exchange and transport systems > Flashcards

topic 3B - more exchange and transport systems Flashcards

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1
Q

what is digestion?

A

a process in which relatively large, insoluble biological molecules in food are hydrolysed into smaller, soluble molecules that can be absorbed across the cell membranes into the bloodstream and delivered to cells in the body

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2
Q

the role of enzymes in digestion:

A

enzymes are essential for the process of digestion as they catalyse the hydrolysis

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3
Q

what are the products of digestion used for?

A

-to provide cells with energy (via respiration)
-to build other molecules for cell growth, repair and function

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4
Q

protein + hydrolysation

A

amino acid

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5
Q

carbohydrates + hydrolysation

A

simple sugars

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6
Q

lipids + hydrolysation

A

glycerol and fatty acids

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7
Q

what does the human digestive system include?

A

-glands
-mouth
-stomach
-small & large intenstines
-liver
-oesophagus

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8
Q

the role of the mouth (digestive system)

A

-contains teeth which break food into smaller pieces and increase its surface area to volume ratio
-carbohydrate digestion begins here
-the food is shaped into a bolus (ball) by the tongue and lubricated in saliva so it can be swallowed easily

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9
Q

the role of the oesophagus
(digestive system)

A

-a hollow tube with muscular walls through which food passes from the mouth to the stomach
-contractions of the smooth muscle in the wall of the oesophagus help move food down towards the stomach

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10
Q

the role of the stomach
(digestive system)

A

protein digestion begins here

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11
Q

the role of small intestine
(digestive system)

A

-food passes through the lumen
-the wall of the small intestine contains smooth muscle tissue, which rhythmically contracts to move food along
-soluble food molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream across the wall of the small intestine (by diffusion and active transport)
-ileum is long and lined with finger-Like villi to increase the surface area over which absorption can take place
-eater absorption also occurs here

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12
Q

the role of the large intestine
(digestive system)

A

-any water remaining in food that was not able to be digested is absorbed here, along with vitamins and minerals
-undigested food material (faeces) is stored in the rectum and removed through the anus

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13
Q

enzymes in the digestive system:

A

-enzymes are substrate specific (different enzymes digest and breakdown the different biological molecules contained in food)
-digestive enzymes are extracellular

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14
Q

what are the three main types of digestive enzymes?

A

carbohydrases, proteases and lipases

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15
Q

where does the digestion of carbohydrates occurs?

A

in the mouth and the small intestine

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16
Q

what is amylase?

A

a carbohydrase that hydrolyses (breaks down) starch into maltose

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17
Q

what happens to maltose?

A

it is hydrolysed into glucose by the enzyme maltase

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18
Q

where is amylase made?

A

in the salivary glands, the pancreas and the small intestine

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19
Q

what is maltase?

A

a disaccharidase which is found in cell-surface membranes of the epithelial cells lining the small intestine

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20
Q

which other disaccharidases are in the cell-surface membrane of the epithelial cells in the small intestine and what do they do?

A

sucrase and lactase:
they hydrolyse sucrose and lactose respectively

this allows the absorption of monosaccharides into epithelial cells of the small intestine which pass them into the blood stream

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21
Q

structure & function of the lining of the small intenstine:

A

the lining of the small intestine is folded and there are microvilli present:

this increases the surface area
→ allows more membrane-bound disaccharidases to fit into the membrane
→ allows more absorption to take place

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22
Q

the digestion of starch by enzymes (arrows)

A

(lumen of the gut)

starch
→ amylase
maltose
→ maltase
glucose

(inside the epithelial cells of the small intestine)

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23
Q

the process of maltose being hydrolysed:

A

1) maltose molecules in the lumen of the gut diffuse towards membrane and bind to maltase

2) the membrane bound maltase hydrolyses maltose

3) two molecules of glucose are produced, which pass into the cytoplasm

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24
Q

which enzymes are involved in the digestion of protein?

A

-endopeptidase
-exopeptidase
-dipeptidase

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25
Q

where does protein digestion begin?

A

in the lumen of the stomach by protease enzymes

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26
Q

(PART 1) process of protein digestion in the stomach:

A

1) endopeptidase (a protease enzyme) hydrolyses peptide bonds within proteins, creating smaller sized protein chunks

2) this enzyme is secreted along with hydrochloric acid, meaning the pH in the stomach is low and therefore acidic

3) the partially digested food moves from the stomach into the small intestine

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27
Q

(PART 2) process of protein digestion in the stomach:

A

1) fluid secreted by the pancreas travels to the small intestine and helps to neutralize the acidic mixture and increase the pH. this pancreatic juice contains endopeptidases and exopeptidase

2) lastly, there are dipeptidase enzymes found within the cell surface membrane of the epithelial cells in the small intestine

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28
Q

what do endopeptidases do?

A

they hydrolyse peptide bonds within polypeptide chains to produce dipeptides

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29
Q

what do exopeptidases do?

A

they hydrolyse peptide bonds at the ends of polypeptide chains to produce dipeptides

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30
Q

what does dipeptidase do?

A

it hydrolyses dipeptides into amino acids which are released into the cytoplasm of the cell

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31
Q

the digestion of protein by enzymes (arrows)

A

(lumen of the gut)

protein
→ (endopeptidase)
polypeptides
→ (exopeptidase)
dipeptides
→ (dipeptidase)
amino acids

(inside the cell-surface membrane of an epithelial cell)

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32
Q

the process of dipeptides being hydrolysed:

A

(lumen of the gut)

1) dipeptides diffuse towards membrane and bind to dipeptidase (enzyme-substrate complex)

2) dipeptides are hydrolysed into two amino acids which pass into the cytoplasm of the epithelial cell

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33
Q

does digestion of lipids happen immediately?

A

-there are several stages of breakdown that lipids go through prior to digestion

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34
Q

stages before digestion of lipase:

A

1) in the stomach, solid lipids are turned into a fatty liquid consisting of fat droplets

2) when the fatty liquid arrives in the small intestine, bile which has been made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder is secreted

3) the bile salts bind to the fatty liquid and break the fatty droplets into smaller ones via emulsification

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35
Q

what does bile contain?

A

bile salts

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36
Q

what is the purpose of emulsification?

A

helps to increase the surface area of the fatty droplets for action of digestive enzymes

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37
Q

digestion of lipids

A

-takes place solely in the lumen of the small intestine
-lipase enzymes break down lipids to glycerol and fatty acids

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38
Q

the digestion of lipids by enzymes (arrows)

A

lipids (large fat globule)
→ (bile salts)
emulsified lipids (small fat droplets)
→ (lipase)
fatty acids & glycerol

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39
Q

what is amylase’s substrate?

A

carbohydrates

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40
Q

where is amylase produced and released?

A

produced:
salivary glands & pancreas

released:
mouth & small intestines

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41
Q

what is maltases substrate?

A

disaccharides

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42
Q

where is maltese produced and released?

A

produced:
small intestine

released:
small intestine

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43
Q

what is the substrate of endopeptidases?

A

proteins

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44
Q

where are endopeptidases produced and released?

A

produced:
stomach & pancreas

released:
stomach & small intestines

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45
Q

where are exopeptidases produced and released?

A

produced:
pancreas

released:
small intestine

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46
Q

what is the substrate of dipeptidase?

A

dipeptidases

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47
Q

where are dipeptidases produced and released?

A

produced:
small intestine

released:
small intestine

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48
Q

what is the substrate of lipase?

A

lipids

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49
Q

where is lipase produced and released?

A

produced:
pancreas

released:
small intestine

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50
Q

what happens to the products of digestion?

A

they are absorbed through the intestinal lining

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51
Q

what is the mechanism of absorption for monosaccharides and amino acids?

A

co-transport

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52
Q

what is the mechanism of absorption for lipids?

A

a different method than co-transport

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53
Q

what is found within the cell-surface membrane of the epithelial cells in the ileum? (absorption of amino acids)

A

specific amino acid co-transport proteins (carrier molecules)

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54
Q

when can amino acids be co-transported?

A

when there are sodium ions present, for every sodium ion that is transported into the cell, an amino acid is transported in

(through a sodium dependent amino acid carrier protein)

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55
Q

which process is used for transport of amino acids?

A

facilitated diffusion, which requires the movement of molecules down their concentration gradient

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56
Q

where do amino acids travel?

A

amino acids diffuse across the epithelial cell and then pass into the capillaries via facilitated diffusion (through a channel protein)

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57
Q

what is the concentration gradient of sodium between?

A

from the lumen of the ileum into the epithelial cell

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58
Q

how is the concentration gradient of sodium maintained?

A

the active transport of sodium ions out of the cell and into the blood via a sodium-potassium pump at the other end of the cell

59
Q

which method of transport is used to transport monosaccharides?

A

facilitated diffusion

60
Q

where do monosaccharides travel?

A

across the epithelial cell and enter the capillary at the other end of the cell by facilitated diffusion

61
Q

where are the sodium dependent glucose carrier proteins?

A

in the cell-surface membrane of the small intestine

62
Q

how is the concentration gradient of sodium ions maintained?

A

by actively transporting sodium ions out of the epithelial cells into the blood

63
Q

products of lipid digestion:

A

fatty acids, monoglycerides and glycerol

64
Q

what do monoglycerides and fatty acids associate with? (absorption of lipids)

A

they associate with phospholipids and bile salts to form micelles (very small droplets)

65
Q

why are micelles useful?

A

monoglycerides and fatty acids aren’t very soluble so the micelles aid the transport of these molecules to the surface of the epithelial cells

66
Q

what happens after micelles associate?

A

-the micelles break down and add to a pool of fatty acids and monoglycerides that are dissolved in the small intestine solution surrounding the epithelial cells
-these freely dissolved molecules enter the epithelial cell by diffusion
-they are non-polar molecules so they can diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane

67
Q

complications with moving into blood (absorption of lipids)

A

-the short fatty acid chains within the epithelial cells can move directly into the blood via diffusion but the longer chains can’t

68
Q

what do longer fatty acid chains do so they can move into the blood?

A

recombine with monoglycerides and glycerol to form triglycerides in the endoplasmic reticulum

69
Q

what happens to the triglycerides? (steps)

A

1) they are packaged into lipoproteins called chylomicrons

2) these droplets are transported to a lacteal (a lymph vessel within the villus) via exocytosis

3) ventually, chylomicrons enter the bloodstream

70
Q

what are chylomicrons?

A

-chylomicron structure is a spherical ‘case’ made of phospholipids and lipoproteins that hold the non-polar triglycerides inside, hidden from the aqueous environment of the cytoplasm and blood

cholesterol and phospholipids are also found within chylomicrons

71
Q

which tissues are in the stomach and what do they do?

A

glandular tissue:
produces enzymes and stomach acid

muscular tissue:
churns food, mixing it with enzymes and acid

72
Q

role of the acid in the stomach:

A

-the acid helps to unravel proteins to enable enzyme activity
-it lowers the ph which is optimal for stomach enzymes to work
-a lower pH is detrimental to many types of microorganisms which may be present in food

73
Q

what are the three parts of the small intestine?

A

the duodenum, the jejunum and the ileum (end part)

74
Q

what is the lumen of the small intestine?

A

the space through which food passes

75
Q

which digestion occurs in the duodenum?

A

carbohydrate, protein and lipid digestion

76
Q

what occurs in the jejunum and ileum?

A

soluble food molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream across the wall of the small intestine

77
Q

ileum facts:

A

long and lined with finger-like villi:
increase the surface area over which absorption can take

78
Q

what do the cells of all living organisms need?

A

a constant supply of reactants for metabolism

79
Q

reactants: single celled vs multicellular

A

-single celled organisms can gain oxygen and glucose directly from their surroundings, and the molecules can diffuse to all parts of the cell quickly due to short diffusion distances

-larger organisms, however, are made up of many layers of cells, meaning that the time taken for substances such as glucose and oxygen to diffuse to every cell in the body would be far too long

80
Q

how to solve the issues with reactants and large organisms:
(+ examples)

A

their exchange surfaces are connected to a mass transport system

(eg: the lungs are connected to the circulatory system)

81
Q

what is mass transport?

A

the bulk movement of gases or liquids in one direction, usually via a system of vessels and tubes

82
Q

advantages of mass transport systems:

A

-help to bring substances quickly from one exchange site to another

-help to maintain the diffusion gradients at exchange sites and between cells and their fluid surroundings

-ensure effective cell activity by keeping the immediate fluid environment of cells within a suitable metabolic range

83
Q

what is the circulatory system?

A

the one-way flow of blood within the blood vessels carries essential nutrients and gases to all the cells of the body

84
Q

what are haemoglobins?

A

a group of chemically similar molecules that are found in many different organisms

85
Q

what is haemoglobin?

A

a globular protein & an oxygen-carrying pigment found in red blood cells

86
Q

features of red blood cells:

A

-biconcave discs
-do not contain a nucleus

87
Q

why are red blood cells biconcave?

A

high SA:V ratio for the diffusion of gases

88
Q

why don’t red blood cells have a nucleus?

A

more space inside the cell for haemoglobin so that they can transport as much oxygen as possible

89
Q

what structure does haemoglobin have?

A

quarternary; it is made up of four polypeptide chains

90
Q

what subunits are haemoglobin made of?

A

globin proteins (two a-globins and two B-globins) and each subunit has a haem group

91
Q

what are the four globin subunits held together by?

A

disulphide bonds

92
Q

how are the four globin subunits arranged?

A

hydrophobic R groups are facing inwards → helps to preserve the 3D spherical shape

hydrophilic R groups are facing outwards
→ helps to maintain solubility

93
Q

what ion does the prosthetic haem group contain?

A

iron Il ion

94
Q

what can this ion do?

A

reversibly combine with an oxygen molecule, forming oxyhaemoglobin

95
Q

the presence of oxyhaemoglobin causes blood to appear…

A

bright red

96
Q

each haemoglobin can carry…

A

four oxygen molecules
(& 8 oxygen atoms)

97
Q

function of haemoglobin:

A

-binding oxygen in the lungs
-transporting the oxygen to the tissue to be used in aerobic metabolic pathways

-the existence of the iron II ion in the prosthetic haem group lets oxygen reversibly bind (none of the amino acids that make up the polypeptide chains in haemoglobin are well suited to binding with oxygen)

98
Q

why is haemoglobin better than oxygen travelling directly around the body?

A

oxygen is not very soluble in water and haemoglobin is, oxygen can be carried more efficiently around the body when bound to the haemoglobin

99
Q

differences between types of haemoglobin:

A

the haem group is the same for all types of haemoglobin but the globin chains can differ substantially between haemoglobins from different species

100
Q

other name for red blood cells:

A

erythrocytes

101
Q

oxygen + haemoglobin = oxyhaemoglobin

A

402 + Hb = Hb40

102
Q

what is cooperative binding?

A

the binding of the first oxygen molecule results in a conformational change in the structure of the haemoglobin molecule, making it easier for each successive oxygen molecule to bind

103
Q

terms for binding & unbinding of oxygen

A

associating, dissociating

104
Q

cm → dm

A

divide by 1000

105
Q

what does an oxygen dissociation curve show?

A

the rate at which oxygen associates, and also dissociates, with haemoglobin at different partial pressures of oxygen

106
Q

what is partial pressure (of oxygen)?

A

the pressure exerted by oxygen within a mixture of gases

107
Q

when is haemoglobin saturated?

A

when all of its oxygen binding sites are taken up with oxygen; so when it contains four oxygen molecules

108
Q

what is haemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen?

A

the ease with which haemoglobin binds and dissociates with oxygen

109
Q

high affinity

A

it binds easily and dissociates slowly

110
Q

low affinity

A

it binds slowly and dissociates easily

111
Q

haemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen changes at…

A

different partial pressures of oxygen

112
Q

shape of dissociation curve at low partial pressures of oxygen: (association)

A

shallow curve:
due to the shape of the haemoglobin molecule it is difficult for the first oxygen molecule to bind to haemoglobin; this means that binding of the first oxygen occurs slowly
(haemoglobin has a low affinity for oxygen at low pO^2)

113
Q

shape of dissociation curve at middle level partial pressures of oxygen: (association)

A

steeper curve:

after the first oxygen molecule binds to haemoglobin, the haemoglobin protein changes shape (cooperative binding), making it easier for the next haemoglobin molecules to bind
this speeds up binding of the remaining oxygen molecules

114
Q

shape of dissociation curve at high partial pressures of oxygens: (association)

A

levelling off:
as the haemoglobin molecule approaches saturation it takes longer for the fourth oxygen molecule to bind due to the shortage of remaining binding sites
(high affinity for oxygen at high p02)

115
Q

shape of dissociation curve at high partial pressures of oxygen: (disassociation) R → L

A

in the lungs, where p02 is high, there is very little dissociation of oxygen from haemoglobin

116
Q

shape of dissociation curve at medium partial pressures of oxygen: (disassociation) R → L

A

steep region:
-oxygen dissociates readily from haemoglobin
-this region corresponds with the partial pressures of oxygen present in the respiring tissues of the body
-ready release of oxygen is important for cellular respiration
(low affinity)

117
Q

shape of dissociation curve at low partial pressures of oxygen: (disassociation)
R→ L

A

dissociation slows again; there are few oxygen molecules left on the binding sites, and the release of the final oxygen molecule becomes more difficult

118
Q

what is the bohr shift?

A

changes in the oxygen dissociation curve as a result of carbon dioxide levels

119
Q

what happens to haemoglobin when the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood is high?

A

haemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen is reduced

120
Q

where does the bohr shift occur?

A

in respiring tissues, where cells are producing carbon dioxide as a waste product of respiration

121
Q

why does haemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen reduce when the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood is high?

A

-CO2 lowers the pH of the blood
-CO2 combines with water to form carbonic acid
-carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen carbonate ions and hydrogen ions
-hydrogen ions bind to haemoglobon, causing the release of oxygen

122
Q

carbonic acid

A

CO2 + H2O

123
Q

why is the bohr shift helpful in respiring tissues?

A

it means that haemoglobin gives up its oxygen more readily in the respiring tissues where it is needed

124
Q

where does the dissociation curve shift when
CO2 levels increase & what does this mean?

A

to the right:

at any given partial pressure of oxygen, the percentage saturation of haemoglobin is lower at higher levels of CO2

125
Q

what is cardiac output?

A

the volume of blood that is pumped by the heart (the left and right ventricle) per unit of time

126
Q

cardiac output of an average adult:

A

4.7 litres of blood per minute when at rest

127
Q

cardiac output of fitter individuals:

A

often have higher cardiac outputs due to having thicker and stronger ventricular muscles in their hearts

128
Q

when does cardiac output increase & why?

A

when an individual is exercising:
so that the blood supply can match the increased metabolic demands of the cells

129
Q

what is heart rate?

A

the number of times a heart beats per minute

130
Q

what is stroke volume?

A

the volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle during one cardiac cycle

131
Q

cardiac output equation:

A

heart rate x stroke volume

132
Q

what do the variating globin polypeptides tell us about haemoglobin?

A

the precise properties of haemoglobin

133
Q

what do haemoglobin types vary in?

A

their oxygen-binding properties

134
Q

factors that can impact the evolution of haemoglobin within a species:

A

-environmental factors

135
Q

oxygen at high altitudes:

A

the partial pressure of oxygen in the air is lower at higher altitudes

136
Q

how have different animals adapted to low levels of oxygen at high altitudes?
(which animals)

A

llamas:

they have haemoglobin that binds much more readily to oxygen (higher affinity)
↳ this lets them get a sufficient level of oxygen saturation in their blood when the partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) in the air is low

137
Q

where has the disassociation curve shifted for animals at high altitudes?

A

to the left

138
Q

what is foetal haemoglobin?

A

the haemoglobin of a developing foetus

139
Q

adaptations of foetal haemoglobin:

A

a higher affinity for oxygen than adult haemoglobin

140
Q

why is it important for foetal haemoglobin to have a high affinity?

A

it allows a foetus to obtain oxygen from its mother’s blood at the placenta:

-fetal haemoglobin can bind to oxygen at low pO2
-at this low pO2 the mother’s haemoglobin is dissociating with oxygen

141
Q

where has the disassociation curve shifted when looking at foetal haemoglobin?

A

shifts to the left of that for adult haemoglobin

142
Q

what does this shift mean?

A

at any given partial pressure of oxygen, foetal haemoglobin has a higher percentage saturation than adult haemoglobin

143
Q

what happens to a babies’ haemoglobin at birth & why?

A

-after birth, a baby begins to produce adult haemoglobin which gradually replaces foetal haemoglobin
-this is important for the easy release of oxygen in the respiring tissues of a more metabolically active individual

A LEVEL BIO (12 decks)

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