Topic 3 Maturation, Sexuality, Nutrition Flashcards
1
Q
What is Allometry?
A
During growth, a person changes shape as well as size. It is essentially the growth of body parts at different rates, resulting in a change of body proportions.
2
Q
When the legs grow longer than the head, this is what type of ALLOMETRY?
A
Positive Allometry
3
Q
When the head grows smaller relative to the body, this is what type of ALLOMETRY?
A
Negative Allometry
4
Q
Y=bX^a
A
Allometric Growth Equation
Y is one trait
b is a constant
a is “allometric” or “scaling” coefficient
X is the other trait
5
Q
If variable a in the Allometric Growth Equation were EQUAL to 1, how do Y and X relate to each other?
A
The Y and X, or one characteristic and another, will change in direct proportion to each other.
This is because Y=bX^a, and if a = 1, then Y=bX, or b=Y/X so they have to match to equal b.
6
Q
If variable a in the Allometric Growth Equation were LESS THAN 1, how do Y and X relate to each other?
A
Y increases in change more than X.
In the equation Y=bX^a, if X is to the power of something less than 1 then it’ll just be a smaller number than Y. Thus, less change in X compared to Y.
7
Q
If variable a in the Allometric Growth Equation were MORE THAN 1, how do Y and X relate to each other?
A
X increases in change more than Y.
In the equation Y=bX^a, the X would be a bigger number with a higher value power greater than 1. Thus, X would grow or experience change more than Y.
8
Q
What is isometry?
A
This is like allometry, but there’s no difference in growth rates. An example would be heart size increasing in proportion to entire body size.
Basically allometric growth if “a” were equal to 1 so X and Y grow in proportion.
9
Q
What is Bergmann’s Rule?
A
Organisms (mammals and birds) in colder climates grow to be larger than those same/related species in warmer climates.
Surface to volume ratio based. More volume = less surface area for heat to escape body. This helps with living in colder climates by retaining heat better.
10
Q
What is Allen’s Rule?
A
Longer and leaner extremities are favored in hotter climates. This relates back to Bergmann’s rule about surface area and its relation to heat retention, but Allen’s rule specifically looks at extremities or limbs.
A arctic rabbit has short limbs to decrease surface area and retain heat. A desert hare (rabbit) would have long and lean limbs to increase surface area for heat to escape easily and cool the body.
11
Q
Phylogenetic shape changes can be visually demonstrated using what? (remember the varying related fish species)
A
Phylogenetic changes can be visually demonstrated using GRID transformations.
12
Q
What and why were the differences seen in the grid transformations for domesticated hogs (pigs) and wild boar?
A
The heads grew smaller and less tusk-y for docileness and the belly grew bigger for meat.
13
Q
What was the grid transformation of human fetal skull to human adult skull in comparison to chimpanzee fetus to adult?
A
Human adults retained more fetal like features like the round, larger cranium and flatter face.
Chimps grew more of snout and their cranium grew smaller.
14
Q
How does tissue development start in a child and later when adolescent/young adult?
A
Early in development cell division predominates, and later is cell filling (with more proteins or other material)
15
Q
What is growth?
A
Process in which size, number of cells, body shape, and functions increase
Permanent and irreversible
16
Q
How can growth be determined?
A
Determined by measuring physical characteristics such as height and weight over a period of time
17
Q
First stage of growth?
A
Infancy: RAPID growth around 0-3 y/o
18
Q
Second stage of growth?
A
Childhood: growth SLOWS down around 3-13 y/o
19
Q
Third stage of growth?
A
Adolescence: RAPID growth; it’s teenage growth spurt around 13-20 y/o
20
Q
Fourth stage of growth?
A
Adulthood: MINIMAL growth around 20-65 y/o
21
Q
Fifth stage of growth?
A
Old age: NEGATIVE growth as a result of gravity around 65+ y/o
22
Q
Do boys and girls have the same growth rate?
A
No
0-4 y/o boys and girls ARE the same growth rate
4-11 y/o BOYS are FASTER
12-14 y/o GIRLS are FASTER
23
Q
What’s the difference between malnutrition and undernutrition?
A
Malnutrition is enough calories, but not enough nutrients.
Undernutrition is NOT enough calories, and nutrients can be enough or not.
24
Q
Effect of lack of CARBOHYDRATES in children’s diets?
A
Supplies energy, thus the child will be less energetic
25
Effect of lack of PROTEIN in children's diets?
Helps with growth and repair damaged tissues, so the child may have retarded/slowed growth and kwashiorkor (edema, depigmentation of skin, atrophy of muscle and intestines)
26
Effect of lack of VITAMINS in children's diets?
It's an organic nutrient that helps with health and growth. Lack of vitamin D leads to rickets in children, or weak and malformed usually curved bones.
27
Effect of lack of MINERALS in children's diets?
Inorganic nutrient that helps with growth and development, so this gets hindered.
28
Effect of lack of FIBER AND WATER in children's diets?
Just keeps you alive and poopin'. Lack of fiber and water leads to constipation.
29
What does the mammalian brain depend on for energy?
The brain depends on glucose as energy and consumes about 20% of glucose derived energy but accounts for only 2% of body weight (the brain).
30
Is height or weight a better measure for growth rate?
Height because it's based on just the skeleton. Weight has too much of other stuff mixed in that leads to variability.
31
What are symptoms and causes of Kwashiokor?
Lack of protein lead to lack of weight and slowed growth in children.
32
What are symptoms and causes of Rickets?
Vitamin D deficiency that causes bowleggedness due to weak, soft bones
33
What are symptoms and causes of Scurvy?
Lack of vitamin C which causes spot formation on skin, spongy gums, and bleeding from the mucous membranes
34
What are the symptoms and causes of Anemia?
Lack of the mineral Iron, where there's a lack of hemoglobin the RBC. Leads to fatigue as a result of lacking oxygen exchange that would've been used for energy.
35
How does malnutrition (enough calories, not enough nutrients) affect fetuses?
Early gestation, you get a bunch of problems like obesity, CDV, breast cancer, glucose intolerance
Mid gestation you get glucose intolerance and obstructive airway diseases
Late gestation you get just glucose intolerance
36
How did women experiencing famines get affected during pregnancy? And the generations after their kids?
The fetuses were more fat and the children had poorer health. Usually the generational effect was becoming fatter, probably in compensation for starving times while fetal and developing.
37
What is the negative correlation between the weight of a baby at birth and the weight during the first year?
Larger babies grew less while smaller babies grew more.
38
Is velocity of growth or height better a measurement for state of health?
Velocity of growth (growth rate) reflects a child's current state of health better than height at any particular time
It's just the chart with spiked growth rate during infancy then dropping as kids then spiking a bit as teenagers then dropping again.
39
Are most organs isometric?
Yes, most organs grow isometrically such as the liver, spleen, and kidneys if you follow the size/height growth of a person
40
What are exceptions to organs growing with the body isometrically?
The brain and every other thing in the skull DEVELOP faster than any other part of the body.
41
How does the brain become more efficient during adolescence?
Through myelination and synaptic pruning in the prefrontal cortex
42
What is the role of the prefrontal cortex?
It's a "judgement" region that reigns in emptions and doesn't finish developing until adulthood
43
What is the role of the amygdala?
Has the primary role of processing memory, decision making, and emotion responses.
Matures earlier than prefrontal cortex.
44
How does the brain matter change as it ages and grows more efficient?
There's less grey matter due to synaptic pruning and strengthening of synapsis
45
Difference between PNS and CNS neurons?
Peripheral has schwann cells that increase impulse speed. Central has oligodendrocytes that connect neuronal axons as well.
Both have the nodes of ranvier.
46
Why do adolescents tend to be more risky?
Their amygdala remains active longer than the prefrontal cortex and thus take more risks as a result of unreigned emotional decision making.
Almost all cortical regions in regards to cognitive, executive networking, and social, mentalizing networking have decreased grey matter volume and thickness during adolescence. The subcortical where the amygdala and striatum are has amygdala growing in volume, and the striatum shrinking.
Thus, amygdala takes over by volume and increases risk-taking while the brain (mainly the inhibitory PFC) is in the middle of developing.
47
What is the relation between striatum and amygdala in adolescent brain development?
In adolescents, the amygdala volume increases while the striatum volume decreases. The striatum is associated with movement and mediating rewarding experiences.
48
What are the behavioral characteristics of adolescents while their brains are developing?
Adolescents have increased neural reactivity to emotions and rewards (impulsive). Peer pressure and socio-affective (emotional) contexts influence decision-making.
49
What are the roles of the prefrontal cortex (PFC)?
Paying attention
Considering long-term effects/consequences
Organizing thoughts
Planning, strategizing
Inhibition of inappropriate behavior and habilitate appropriate ones
Enabling consideration of multiple facets of info with challenging info
Modulates intense emotions (emotional maturity)
Adapting behavior in response to situations
Controls impulse and delaying gratification
50
What are the two most common leading causes of death in adolescents?
Injury and violence. This includes car crashes, homicides, and suicides. They also partake in risky sex behavior and contract diseases like AIDS and HIV.
51
Who was Clive Wearing and what happened to his CNS as a result of HSV attacking his head?
Expert musician who's now unable to associate memories effectively and unable to control his emotions, leading to unstable moods. His CNS was affected via damage to the hippocampus which associates with memories and navigation.
Hippocampus basically forms long term memories from the short term ones.
52
What is the Thalamus for?
Relay station of special senses other than smell. Also regulates sleep, consciousness, and alertness.
53
What is the basal ganglia for?
Control of movements, learning, habits, cognition, and a bit of emotion
Remember the striatum in the side view of the brain? Temporal region? Striatum is a part of the basal ganglia.
54
What is the hypothalamus for?
Controls body temp, hunger, fatigueness, and sleep
55
What does chronic stress do the hippocampus and PFC? Amygdala?
Chronic stress atrophies the neurons in the hippocampus and PFC.
Amygdala actually hypertrophies in neurons.
Altogether you get more emotional due to heightened amygdala, and have lacking learning and memory due to hippocampus and PFC atrophy.
56
How does the growth of the jaw relate to puberty?
It's a good measure of growth spurts in puberty.
There is considerable growth in the jaw getting longer and the chin is more pointed.
More growth in lower than upper jaw (differential growth). Maturing face is less convex or rounded as chin is more pointed and prominent as a result of lower jaw growth.
57
How does eye growth relate to puberty?
The eyeballs also experience a growth spurt in puberty, but on the axial dimension (front to back anatomically). This results in increased frequency of nearsightedness in children in puberty.
58
What is the growth spurt like for girls over time?
Lasts about 3.5 years
Stage 1: appearance of breast buds and initial pubic hair
Stage 2 (year later): peak physical growth in height, noticeable breast development, armpit hair, thickened pubic hair growth
Stage 3 (another year and maybe half later): Menses, broadening of hips with adult fat distribtution, and breasts completed.
59
What is the growth spurt like for boys over time?
Lasts about 5 years
Stage 1: "fat spurt" with weight gain, feminine fat distribution (hips?)
Stage 2 (year later): height spurt begins, redistribute/reduce fat, pubic hair, growth of penis
Stage 3 (8-12 months later): peak velocity in height, facial hair on just upper lip, muscular growth, harder/more angular body form
Stage 4 (15-24 months later): facial hair on both chin and lip, adult distribution/color of pubic and armpit hair, adult body form
60
What triggers puberty?
The Hypothalamic Pituitary Gonadal axis.
This axis/pathway leads to Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). These hormones signal for release of appropriate sex hormones to initiate puberty.
61
What type of hormones are LH and FSH?
They are gonadotropins (go to gonads) that are peptide hormones (kinda big, can't go directly into target cell and must stick to receptor on outside of target cell)
62
What are the end goal hormones that the HPG axis produces to start puberty?
Testosterone and estrogen (estradiol). They are steroid hormones that directly affect target cells by bypassing the phospholipid bilayer.
63
What is the overall pathway of the HPG axis?
Hypothalamus releases Gonadotropin-releasing hormones to pituitary gland (anterior). Pituitary releases LH and FSH, or the gonadotropins (NOT "-releasing" like hypothalamus releases) to the gonads. The gonads, testes in boys, and ovaries in girls, release testosterone and estradiol/estrogens respectively.
64
How do nervous and endocrine systems work in similar ways?
Release their stuffs to communicate in short or long distance
Endocrine
Short distance is PARACRINE secretion that just secretes hormones into neighboring cell
Long distance is HORMONAL secretion that goes into the blood to be delivered to cells and received by cells with appropriate and fitting receptors
Nervous
Short distance is just electrical signal and emission of neurotransmitters to nearby cells
Long distance is secreting neurotransmitters (like norepinephrine) into the bloodstream to reach target cells far away with proper receptors
65
How does cell communication work?
All communication systems require the production, transmission, and reception of a signal.
NO ACTION if NO RECEPTORS
66
What are the two main types of hormones and their level of communication to a cell?
Steroidal is the fastest because it bypasses bilayer to reach target cell's inner receptors and act.
Peptide has to go to receptors on the outside since too big to bypass bilayer of cell.
67
How does afferent and efferent movement of impulses work?
Neural afferents add to the CNS (sensory stuff, and HORMONES)
Neural efferents exit the CNS (Voluntary/movement stuff, and NEUROHORMONES)
Neurohormone example would be brain RELEASING efferent exiting norepinephrine to make body speed up for autonomic function. This goes out into the body. It does not need to be added back to the brain.
68
What are steroidal hormones?
Stuff synthesized from cholesterol in the adrenal cortex, testis, ovary, and placenta (cortisol from ad. co., testosterone from testis, estradiol from ovary)
69
What are non-steroidal hormone types?
Amines
Peptides
Proteins
Glycoproteins
70
What is an example of amine, non-steroidal hormone?
Epinephrine (and norepinephrine)
71
What is an example of peptide, non-steroidal hormone?
Oxytocin (and ADH or antidiuretics)
72
What is a example of protein, non-steroidal hormone?
Growth hormone, or GH (and insulin)
73
What is the difference between peptide and protein non-steroidal hormones?
Peptide is just smaller chain of amino acids and protein is more amino acids. Just size difference.
74
What is a example of glycoprotein, non-steroidal hormone?
FSH (and Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH))
75
What are the characteristics of steroidal hormone actions? (mechanism of action)
They are small and lipid soluble, so bypasses lipid bilayer. However, not soluble with blood which is mostly water, so they get carried by transport.
Stimulates transcription of specific genes.
Directly affects receptor site inside of cell.
Lasts a long time and takes a while to take effect.
76
What are the characteristics of peptide/protein hormone actions?
Basically opposite of the steroidal. Big and not lipid soluble, so they stick onto receptors outside of cell. Acts on cell through secondary messenger (usually cyclic AMP) which then amplifies a cascade for fast gene expression or cellular process.
Remember epinephrine acts fast to increase glucose production for consumption for energy to do more body action; basically this.
Immediate response due to the amplification of secondary messenger system.
76
What is the difference in the origination of anterior vs posterior hypothalamus?
Anterior is formed from roof of mouth cells, the rathke's pouch thing. The posterior is formed directly from the neuromatter.
77
What is the characteristics of anterior hypothalamus?
Embryonically independently formed from brain, so it acts on its own to produce FSH and LH (glycoprotein hormone) itself to release to gonads. This is after the hypothalamus releases GnRH to signal the ant. pit. to make those gonadotropins.
AKA Adenohypophysis
78
What is the characteristics of posterior hypothalamus?
Hypothalamus more directly influences the posterior pituitary because it's also made of brain matter. The Hypothalamus makes oxytocin and ADH to send to the post. pit. to then be released to body. The post. pit. cannot make any hormones. It only stores and releases what's given to it from the hypothalamus.
AKA Neurohypophysis
79
What are the six (maybe five) hormones released by adenohypophysis?
TSH to thyroid, ACTH to the adrenal cortex, Prolactin (PRL) to the mammaries, Growth Hormone (to somatocells), and gonadotropins (FSH and LH, the 5th/6th) to respective gonads.
80
What are the two categorizations of hormone effects BASED ON FUNCTION?
Organizational: permanent changes
Basically building the body, so like sexual differentiation
Activational: expression and performance of behaviors/physiology
Basically sexual or aggressive behavior
81
How does testosterone show organizational and activational effects of hormones?
Testosterone can build the body. Later, it can express and perform male behavior.
82
How do the testes do?
Testes have 30 meters of tightly packed seminiferous tubules.
In the tubules are Sertoli cells, and between the tubules are interstitial tissue, most importantly Leydig cells.
83
What is the importance of Leydig interstitial cells?
They produce testosterone when affected by LH released from the anterior pituitary.
84
What is the importance of Sertoli cells inside the seminiferous tubules?
Nursing cells that sustain developing sperm in response to FSH from anterior pit. and regulates sperm levels via inhibin to negatively regulate FSH and Androgen Binding Proteins that keep testosterone high.
For the inhibin thing in regards to FSH, it just prevents OVERproduction of sperm. Don't waste.
85
What is the HPG axis pathway for sperm production?
Hypothalamus releases GnRH to Ant. Pit. to release FSH and LH.
FSH affects Sertoli cells to facilitate spermatogenesis but this also releases inhibin to slow down overproduction of FSH made and released by Ant. Pit.
LH affects Leydig cells to produce testosterone which helps promote spermatogenesis in conjunction with Sertoli cells. However, it also negatively regulates GnRH AND FSH and LH production to prevent overproduction.
86
What effects do artificial steroids have on spermatogenesis?
Since testosterone inhibits GnRH released by hypothalamus and release of FSH/LH by the Ant. Pit., artificial testosterone essentially stops the spermatogenesis HPG pathway by inhibiting GnRH/LH/FSH.
You get big muscles, sure, but you get small testis since they ain't working anymore.
87
What are sustentacular cells?
General term for "helper cells." They are basically nursing cells, and this is the name for the Sertoli cells.
88
How do human erection work?
Two components:
Corpus Cavernosa is the two big columns in your peepee that fill with blood to lead to penile erection.
Corpus Spongiosum is the third underside column of peepee that encloses the urethra and ends at the glans of the tip.
89
Why is the human penile erection unusual among mammals?
It's a boner without a actual bone. Other animals have bones in their boners. We're just the flesh that is willing.
90
How does a vasectomy work?
You tie up or cut the vas deferens that connects testis to the urethra. You can still make swimmers, they just don't have a pool to swim out of now. They just degrade and get reabsorbed. Testosterone should be fine too as a result.
91
What are the patterns for Estrogen in regards to FSH and LH during menstruation?
Initially there's a stable amount of both FSH and LH so estrogen starts low but builds oup over time. At 14 days, so middle of the cycle, there's a lot of Estrogen and the LH, the MOST IMPORTANT one spikes and then ovulation occurs. After this spike and ovulation, all three dip down with Estrogen being the only one that rebounds a bit towards the end of the cycle in possible preparation for fertilization if it occurs.
92
What happens to progesterone levels during menstruation?
It spikes after ovulation when the LH spike occurred and this progesterone spike happens so that it can prepare for fertilized egg implantation and maintenance.
93
What are temperature cycle patterns during mensturation?
Pretty warm before ovulation, but drops significantly during ovulation, and spikes after ovulation.
94
How does progesterone birth control work?
Progesterone suggests that there's a fertilized egg and thus there's pregnancy. So if you take progesterone, the body will think that you are pregnant and thus stop the cycle.
95
What are the three ways that hormonal contraceptives work to prevent pregnancy?
1) Stops the body from ovulating
2) Change cervical mucus to prevent sperm from going through cervix and to the egg
3) Changing the uterine lining to prevent fertilized egg implantation
96
How does the timing of starting (menarche) menstruation and stopping (menopause) affect health later in life?
Earlier menarche leads to increases chances of breast/ovarian/endometrial cancer, high BP, and glucose intolerance.
Later menarche leads to reduced chances of obesity and diabetes, but also reduces fertility.
Early menopause leads to decreased fertility (obviously), osteoporosis (b/c lacking estrogen creation), and increased chances of CVD.
Later menopause leads to higher risk of breast/ovarian/endometrial cancer.
97
(1) What is the Biological dimension of sexuality?
Physical appearance, response to sexual stimulation, ability to produce/control fertility, and generally just physiological aspects of growth.
98
(2) What is the Psychological dimension of sexuality?
Involves a person's sense of being, body image, and self image. It is the learned aspects of sexuality and attitudes and feelings about sexuality.
99
(3) What is the Sociocultural dimension of sexuality?
Involves religious, ethical, media, and political influences.
100
What does the SRY (Sex determining Region) gene on the Y chromosome do?
It enables creation of testes to make testosterone that can aromatize into estradiol that can be used to masculinize a brain. It acts as a transcription factor to enable male gonad development but prevents female reproductive structures.
This is a organizational effect of estradiol/testosterone.
101
Having a SRY makes a person "genetically male" but this is NOT biological sex. Why?
If the SRY gene mutates and doesn't function, a person with XY (male typical) will develop female genitalia.
102
What happens if the SRY gene transposes or moves onto another chromosome like X?
A typical female XX could end up with male gonads due to the SRY gene, and a typical male XY could end up without a SRY gene and thus default to a female reproductive system.
103
What is the syndrome when a XY person has no SRY gene?
This is Swyer Syndrome where the disappearance of the SRY gene leads to a XY individual to develop female appearances with female external genitalia.
104
Why don't individuals with Swyer develop properly during puberty, such as getting periods?
They only develop external female genitalia, and they have no ovaries, thus no estrogen. This leads to no development in the breasts, no pubic hair, and overall remain girl-like in appearance.
Basically no ovaries = no estrogen = no secondary sex characteristics.
105
What is an individual with XX containing a transposed SRY gene on one of the X?
They have XX male syndrome. The SRY gene on the X leads to development of partial or full male genitalia and complete or incomplete masculinization. They are infertile due to azoospermia along with small testis that usually have a high risk of cancer due to lack of scrotum environment (ectopic testes). They still develop breasts.
106
Overall can you rely on just chromosomes to determine biological sex?
No, due to the SRY gene dictating typical maleness in both X and Y chromosomes.
107
Can hormone level be used to determine biological sex?
No, due to high variability that affects production of hormones and can have imbalances.
Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS): women make excess male sex hormones
Hirsutism: women grow lots of hair on face or body
Late onset Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Disorder in women where they don't produce important sex hormones in adrenal glands
Testosterone Deficiency: men who have insufficient testosterone production
108
What is Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS) and its relation to disorders of sex development of intersex conditions?
Androgen receptor sites in typical XY males don't form, and androgens are needed to form external male characteristics. The SRY can still be active to form the testes and internal male stuff.
Overall, externally look female but also internally male.
109
Can we use hormone receptors like Androgen ones as a determinant of biological sex?
Nope. You cannot solely use chromosomes (genetics), hormones/receptors, and anatomy to determine biological sex.
A person could be genetically male/female, chromosomally male/female, hormonally male/female, have cells that respond or not to specific hormones, all leading to a body that can be male/non-binary/female.
110
What is gender dysphoria in adolescents/adults according to the DSM-5-TR?
It's when a adolescent or adult feels incongruent or disconnected between their experienced/expressed gender and their assigned gender at birth. This must last at least 6 months. This must be manifested by at least two of the following:
Strong desire to get rid of or prevent sex characteristics
Strong desire to have the sex characteristics of other gender
Strong desire to be of the other gender
Strong desire to be treated as the other gender (or alternative to assigned)
Strong conviction that one has typical feelings/reaction of other gender
111
What is gender dysphoria for children according to the DSM-5-TR?
Similar to adults/adolescents where they have a marked incongruence between experienced/expressed gender and assigned gender for at least 6 months BUT must be manifested by SIX of the following:
Strong desire or insistence to be the other gender
In boys (assigned), strong preference for crossdressing, in girls is counterpart
A strong preference for cross-gender roles in make-believe play
A strong preference for the toys, games, or activities typically engaged by other gender
In boys (assigned) strong rejection of typical masculine toys/activities, same effect in girls rejecting feminine stuff
Strong dislike of one's sexual anatomy
Strong desire for the physical sex characteristics that match one's experienced gender (so if you experience being female your whole life or part of your life you want their stuff)
112
How do puberty blockers work?
They mimic GnRH that's released by the hypothalamus and most importantly STEADILY releases into pituitary gland. Typically, the hypothalamus releases GnRH in pulses.
By steadily releasing GnRH, the pituitary shuts down FSH and LH production due to excess. Therefore, the gonads don't produce Estrogen or Testosterone and can hold off on puberty.
113
What is a key characteristic of puberty blockers that make them viable?
They are TEMPORARY and give time to the user to think about fully transitioning.
114
How does natural GnRH affect fertility in regards to FSH/LH production?
Allows pituitary to normally release FSH and LH, leading to higher fertility
115
How does GnRH stimulatory agonist affect fertility in regards to FSH/LH production?
Administered in pulses, these are basically the same thing as natural GnRH. Leads to FSH/LH production and higher fertility
116
How does GnRH inhibitory agonist affect fertility in regards to FSH/LH production?
Basically the same thing as GnRH, HOWEVER it is not administered in pulses but in a constant administration that leads to loss of receptors of GnRH on pituitary cell. This leads to less/no FSH/LH production and lowers fertility.
117
How does GnRH antagonist affect fertility in regards to FSH/LH production?
It blocks the GnRH receptor on pituitary cells thus preventing production of FSH and LH, leading to lowered fertility
118
How far back do trans people go?
About 5000-3000 BC there was a androgynous or trans priest named Gala
119
Why does support for trans youth matter?
Generally trans youth without support from parents experience lowered life satisfaction, lower self esteem, lowered mental health, suffer highly from depression, attempt suicide substantially more than their supported counterparts, and face high housing problems compared to their supported counterparts.
120
What is the pattern for male homosexuality?
There's incidence of male homosexuality increasing for each older brother, or known as fraternal birth order (FBO)
121
What hypothesis makes the FBO male homosexuality pattern possible?
The maternal immune hypothesis (MIH) makes some conditions that make the FBO pattern possible.
Male embryonic material (proteins) enter the mom's blood circulation and her immune responds against the male proteins
The male proteins are important for brain development, and by being affected by antibodies built against them, they don't function properly
These antibodies would persist in the mother's blood to build incremental immune response that builds up after multiple pregnancies with male fetuses.
122
How do the antibodies produced in the Maternal Immune Hypothesis alter male brain development leading to possible male homosexuality?
The antibodies block the normal contact between two specific cells: NLGN4Y, or neuroligin 4 Y-linked, and PCDH11Y, or Protocadherin 11 Y-linked.
123
What is the significance of NLGN4Y, or neuroligin 4 Y-linked?
It interacts with neurexin at the cell membrane and this plays a role with synaptic functioning.
By getting blocked by the mother's antibodies, the NLGN4Y-neurexin interaction gets disrupted, thus modifying the roles of synapses implicated in the masculinization of the brain.
