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Biology > Topic 3-Infection And Response > Flashcards

Topic 3-Infection And Response Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Pathogens

A

Pathogens are microorganisms that enter the body and cause disease

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2
Q

Pathogens cause communicable disease-what is a communicable disease

A

Diseases that can be easily spread

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3
Q

What can be infected by pathogens

A

Both plants and animals

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4
Q

What are the four types of pathogen

A

Bacteria
Viruses
Protists
Fungi

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5
Q

What are bacteria

A

Very small cells which can reproduce rapidly in your body

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6
Q

What can bacteria do

A

They can make you feel ill by producing toxins that damage your cells and tissues

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7
Q

What are viruses

A

They are not cells but they are tiny. They also can reproduce rapidly inside the body

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8
Q

How to viruses work

A

They live inside your cells and replicate themselves. The cell will then burst, releasing all the new viruses. This cell damage is what makes you feel ill

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9
Q

What are protists

A

They are single-celled eukaryotes

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10
Q

How do protists work

A

Some protists are parasites. Parasites live on or inside other organisms and can cause them damage. They are often transferred to the organism by a vector, which doesn’t get the disease itself (eg an insect)

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11
Q

What are fungi

A

Some fungi are single celled. Others have a body which is made up of hyphae

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12
Q

What do hyphae do

A

These hyphae grow and penetrate human skin and the surface of plants, causing diseases. The hyphae can produce spores, which can be spread to other plants and animals

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13
Q

What are the ways pathogens can be spread

A

Water
Air
Direct contact

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14
Q

How are pathogens spread through water

A

Some pathogens can be picked up from drinking or bathing in dirty water.

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15
Q

How can pathogens be spread by air

A

Pathogens can be carried in the air and breathed in. Some airborne pathogens are carried in the air in droplets produced when you sneeze or cough

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16
Q

How can pathogens be spread by direct contact

A

Some pathogens can be picked up by touching contaminated surfaces, including skin

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17
Q

Is measles a viral, fungal, bacterial or protist disease

A

Viral

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18
Q

How is measles spread

A

It is spread by droplets from an infected person’s sneeze or cough

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19
Q

What does measles do

A

People with measles develop a red skin rash, and they show signs of a fever. Measles can be very serious if there are complications. For example it can sometimes lead to pneumonia.
Most people are vaccinated against measles when they are young

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20
Q

Is HIV a viral, fungal, bacterial or protist disease

A

Viral

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21
Q

How is HIV spread

A

It is spread by sexual contact or by exchanging bodily fluids such as blood eg by sharing needles

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22
Q

What does HIV do

A

Initially it can cause flu like symptoms for the first few weeks.

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23
Q

How can HIV be controlled

A

By using antiretroviral drugs which stop the virus replicating in the body.

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24
Q

How does HIV work

A

It attacks the immune cells

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25
Q

What is AIDS

A

If the body’s immune system is badly damaged, it can’t cope with other infections or cancers.

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26
Q

What is tobacco mosaic virus

A

It is a virus that affects many species of plants

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27
Q

What does tobacco mosaic virus do

A

It causes a mosaic pattern on the leaves of plants and parts of the leaves become discoloured. The discolouration means the plant can’t carry out photosynthesis as well so the virus affects growth

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28
Q

Is rose black spot a viral, fungal, bacterial or protist disease

A

Fungal

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29
Q

What is rose black spot

A

It is a fungus that causes purple or black spots to develop on the leaves of rose plants. The leaves can then turn yellow and drop off. This means that less photosynthesis can happen so the plant doesn’t grow very well

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30
Q

How is rose black spot spread

A

It spreads through the environment in water or by wind

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31
Q

How can rose black spot be treated

A

Gardners can treat the disease using fungicides and by stripping the plant of its affected leaves. These leaves then need to be destroyed so that the fungus can’r spread to other rose plants

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32
Q

Is malaria a viral, fungal, bacterial or protist disease

A

Is is caused by a protist

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33
Q

Where does part of the mararial protists life cycle happen

A

Inside a mosquito

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34
Q

What are mosquitoes

A

They are vectors-they pick up the malarial protist when they feed on an infected animal

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35
Q

How is malaria spread

A

Everytime the mosquito feeds on another animal it infects it by inserting the protist into the animal’s blood vessels

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36
Q

What does malaria do

A

It causes repeating episodes of fever and can be fatal

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37
Q

Is salmonella a viral, bacterial, fungal or protist disease

A

Bacterial

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38
Q

What is salmonella

A

It is a type of bacteria that causes food posioning

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39
Q

What does salmonella do

A

Infected people can suffer from fever, stomach cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea

40
Q

How is salmonella spread

A

The symptoms are caused by the toxins that the bacteria produce. You can get salmonella by eating food that has been contaminated with salmonella bacteria

41
Q

Is gonorrhoea a viral, fungal, bacterial or protist disease

A

Bacterial

42
Q

What is gonorrhoea

A

It is a sexually transmitted disease which is passed on by sexual contact

43
Q

What does gonorrhoea do

A

A person with gonorrhoea will get pain when they urinate. Another symptom is thick yellow or green discharge

44
Q

How was gonorrhoea originally treated

A

It was originally treated by the antibiotic penicillin but now this is more difficult because strains of bacteria have become resistant to it

45
Q

How can gonorrhoea by prevented

A

People can be treated with antibiotics and should use barrier methods of contraception

46
Q

How can the spread of disease be reduced

-Being hygenic

A

Doing things like washing your hands before preparing food or after you’ve sneezed

47
Q

How can the spread of disease be reduced

-Destroying vectors

A

Vectors can be killed by using insecticides or by destroying their habitat so they can no longer breed

48
Q

How can the spread of disease be reduced

-Isolating infected individuals

A

If you isolate someone who has a communicable disease this prevents them from passing it on to anyone else

49
Q

How can the spread of disease be reduced

-Vaccination

A

Having a vaccination means that they can’t develop the infection and then pass it on to someone else

50
Q

How does the body stop pathogens getting in

-Skin

A

The skin acts as a barrier to pathogens. It also secretes antimicrobial substances which kill pathogens

51
Q

How does the body stop pathogens getting in

-Hairs and mucus

A

Hairs and mucus in the nose trap particles that could contain pathogens

52
Q

How does the body stop pathogens getting in

-Trachea and bronchi

A

The trachea and bronchi secrete mucus to trap pathogens. Also they are lined with cilia, these are hair-like structures which waft the mucus up to the back of the throat where it can be swallowed

53
Q

How does the body stop pathogens getting in

-The stomach

A

The stomach produces hydrochloric acid. This kills pathogens that make it that far from the mouth

54
Q

What happens if pathogens do make it into your body

A

The immune sytems tries to get rid of them

55
Q

How the immune system destroys pathogens

-Consuming them

A

White blood cells can engulf foreign cells and digest them. This is called phagocytosis

56
Q

How the immune system destroys pathogens

-Producing antibodies

A

Every pathogens has antigens on its surface. Some white blood cells will produce antibodies when they come across a foreign antigen. This locks onto the invading cells so they can be found and destroyed by other white blood cells. Antibodies are produced rapidly and carried around the body. If the person if infected again they already have the right antibodies so are naturally immune

57
Q

How the immune system destroys pathogens

-Producing antitoxins

A

These counteract toxins produced by the invading bacteria.

58
Q

What do vaccinations involve

A

Injecting small amounts of dead or inactive pathogens. These carry antigens which cause your body to produce antibodies to attack them even though the pathogen is harmless. So if live pathogens of the same type enter the body the body already has the correct antibodies so can kill the pathogen

59
Q

What is the MMR vaccine

A

It contains weakened versions of the viruses that contain measles, mumps and rubella

60
Q

Pros of vaccination

A

They have helped control communicable diseases that were once common in the uk. Big outbreaks (epidemics) can be prevented if a large number of the population are vaccinated.

61
Q

Cons of vaccination

A

Vaccines don’t always work.

You can sometimes have a bad reaction to a vaccine, but bad reactions are very rare

62
Q

What do painkillers do

A

They are drugs that relieve pain. However, they don’t actually tackle the cause of the disease or kill pathogens, they just help relieve symptoms.

63
Q

What do antibiotics do

A

They actually kill or prevent the growth of the bacteria causing the problem without killing your own body cells. Different antibiotics kill different types of bacteria so you have to be treated with the right one

64
Q

Con os antibiotics

A

They don’t destroy viruses. Viruses reproduce using your own body cells which makes it very difficult to develop drugs that destroy just the virus without killing the body’s cells

65
Q

Bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics

A

Bacteria can mutate to become resistant. This means if you treat the infection, only non-resistant strains will be killed. The resistant bacteria will reproduce so the population of the resistant strain will increase. To slow down the development of resistant strains doctors shouldn’t over prescribe antibiotics

66
Q

Making drugs from plants

A

Plants produce a variety of chemicals to defend themselves against pests and pathogens. Some of these chemicals can be used as drugs to treat human diseases or relieve symptoms. A lot of our current medicines were discoverer by studying plants used in traditional cures

67
Q

Drug testing

•Stage 1 (preclinical)

A

Drugs are tested on human cells and tissues in the lab. However you can’t use human cells and tissues to test drugs that affect whole or multiple body systems

68
Q

Drug testing

•Stage 2 (preclinical)

A

Testing the drug on live animals. This is to test efficacy (wether it works and produces the right effect), its toxicity and to find the best dosage

69
Q

Drug testing

•Stage 3 (clinical)

A

If it passes the animal test then it is tested on human volunteers. First on healthy volunteers to test for side effects. Then on sufferers to find an optimum dosage. Then some people take the drug and some take a placebo to see the effects. The patient or doctor doesn’t know wether they have a placebo or not. Results then have to be peer reviewed

70
Q

What are antibodies produced by

A

B-lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell)

71
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies

A

Identical antibodies

72
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies produces

A

From lots of clones of a single white blood cell. This means they are identical and target one specific protein antigen

73
Q

What is a hybridoma

A

Lymphocytes don’t divide very easily but tumour cells can be grown very easily. A hybridoma is a B-lymphocyte fused with a tumour cell.

74
Q

What are hybridomas useful for

A

They can be cloned to get lots of identical cells. These cells produce the same antibodies. These antibodies can be collected and purified

75
Q

Why are monoclonal antibodies useful

A

You can make monoclonal antibodies that bind to anything. Monoclonal antibodies are useful because they will only bind to this molecule which means you can use them to targer a specific cell or chemical in the body

76
Q

How pregnancy tests work

A

The part of the test you urinate on has antibodies to the hormone of pregnant women, with blue beads attached. The test strip (the bit that turns blue) has some more antibodies of the hormone on

77
Q

How pregnancy tests work

-If you are pregnant

A

The hormone binds to the antibodies on the blue beads. The urine moves up the stick, carrying the hormone and the beads. The beads and hormone bind to the antibodies on the strip. So the blue beads get stuck on the strip, turning it blue

78
Q

How pregnancy tests work

-If you’re not pregnant

A

The urine still moves up the stick, carrying the blue beads but there’s nothing to stick the blue beads onto the test strip so it doesn’t go blue

79
Q

Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat diseases

A

Cancer cells have antigens on their cell membranes. You can make monoclonal antibodies to bind to these. An anti-cancer drug can be attatched to these antibodies. The antibodies are given to a patient through a drip. Antibodies only target the cancer cells. The drug kills cancer cells but not any normal cells

80
Q

Monoclonal antibodies can also be used to

A

Bind to hormones and other chemicals in the blood to measure the levels.
Test blood samples in labs for certain pathogens.
Locate specific molecules on a cell or in a tissue

81
Q

How monoclonal antibodies are used to locate specific molecules on a cell or tissue

A

First monoclonal antibodies are made that will bind to the specific molecules. The antibodies are bound to flourescent dye. If the molecules are present in the sample, the monoclonal antibodies will attach to them and can be detected using the dye

82
Q

Problems of monoclonal antibodies

A

Monoclonal antibodies cause more side effects than originally expected. This means they are not as widely used as scientists originally thought they would be

83
Q

Plants need mineral ions

A

Plants need mineral ions from the soil, if they don’t have enough they suffer deficiency symptoms

84
Q

Plants need nitrates for

A

Nitrates are needed to make proteins and therefore for growth.
A lack of nitrates causes stunted growth

85
Q

Plants need magnesium for

A

Magnesium ions are needed for making chlorophyll, which is needed for photosynthesis. Plants without enough magnesium suffer from chlorosis and have yellow leaves

86
Q

The common signs that a plant has a disease

A
  • Stunted growth
  • Spots on leaves
  • Patches of decay
  • Abnormal growths
  • Malformed stems or leaves
  • Discolouration
87
Q

How to identify plant diseases

A

Look up the signs on a gardening website. Take the infected plant to a lab where scientists can identify the pathogen. Using testing kits to identify the pathogen using monoclonal antibodies

88
Q

Plants physical defences

•Waxy cuticle

A

Most plant leaves and stems have a waxy cuticle which provides a barrier to stop pathogens entering

89
Q

Plants physical defences

•Cell walls

A

Plant cells are surrounded by cell walls made from cellulose. These form a physical barrier against pathogens that make it past the waxy cuticle

90
Q

Plants physical defences

•Layers of dead cells

A

Plants have a layer of dead cells around their stems, eg the outer part of the bark on a tree.
These act as a barrier to stop pathogens entering

91
Q

Plants chemical defences

•Antibacterial chemicals

A

Some plants can produce antibacterial chemicals which kill bacteria

92
Q

Plants chemical defences

•Poisons

A

Other plants produce poisons which can deter herbivores

93
Q

Plants mechanical defences

•Thorns and hairs

A

Some plants have adapted to have thorns and hairs which stop animals from touching and eating them

94
Q

Plants mechanical defences

•Droop or curl leaves

A

Other plants have leaves that droop or curl when touched. This means they can prevent themselves from being eaten by knocking insects off and moving away from things

95
Q

Plants mechanical defences

•Mimicking

A

Some plants can mimic other organisms
EG: Some plants in the ice plant family in Southern Africa look like stones and pebbles which tricks other organisms into not eating them

Biology (6 decks)

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