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biology > Topic 3 - infection and response > Flashcards

Topic 3 - infection and response Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is a pathogen ?

A

A micro-organism that enters the body and causes disease.

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2
Q

what is a communicable disease?

A

a disease that can be easily spread

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3
Q

What are bacteria and how do they make you ill?

A

very small cells (about 1/100th the size of body cells)
can reproduce rapidly inside your body
make you feel ill by producing toxins that damage your cells and tissues

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4
Q

what are viruses and how do they make you feel ill?

A

not cells (1/100th the size of a bacterium )
reproduce rapidly
they make you ill by replicating theirselves inside cells.
the cell will then burst ,releasing all of the new virus

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5
Q

what is a protist?

A

single celled organism
eukaryote

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6
Q

give an example of a protist and what it does.

A

parasites
live on or inside other organisms and can cause them dammage

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7
Q

what is a vector?

A

an organism that carries a protist but doesnt get ill

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8
Q

how do fungi cause disease?

A

some are made up of hyphae which are thread lile structures that can grow and penetrate human skin and the surfaces of plants.
they can also produce spores which can be spread to other plants and animals.

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9
Q

What are the 3 ways that pathogens can be spread?

A

water - some can be picked from drinking or bathing in dirty water,
air - can be carried in the air and then breathed in ,some can be carried in droplets when you cough or sneeze
direct contact - some can be picked up by touching contaminated surfaces including the skin.

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10
Q

is measels a viral, fungal , bacterial or protist disease?

A

viral disease

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11
Q

how is measles spread?

A

spread by droplets from an infected persons sneeze or cough .

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12
Q

What are the symptoms of measles?

A

red skin rash
fever
can lead to pneumonia or inflamation of the brain

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13
Q

most people are _____________ against measles when they are young.

A

vaccinated

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14
Q

is HIV a viral, bacterial , fungal or protist disease ?

A

viral disease

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15
Q

How is HIV spread?

A

by sexual contact or exchanging bodily fluids such as blood

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16
Q

what are the symptoms of HIV?

A

causes flu like symptoms for a few weeks.
usually the person doesnt ecperience symptoms for several years .
then the virus attacks the immune cells
if the body’s immune system is badly damages, it cant cope with other infections.

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17
Q

what is HIV known as in its late stage ?

A

AIDS

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18
Q

How can HIV be controlled?

A

with antiretrovial drugs that stop the virus from replicating

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19
Q

does tobacco mosaic virus affect animals or plants?

A

plants

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20
Q

What are the symptoms of tobacco mosaic virus?

A

moisaic pattern on the leaves of plants
this is because some of the leaves become discoloured
this affects the plants growth as the plant can’t carry out photosynthesis as well

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21
Q

is rose black spot a viral, fungal ,protist or bacterial disease?

A

fungal disease

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22
Q

what are the symptoms of rose black spot?

A

purple or black spots that develop on the leaves of rose plants.
the leaves then turn yellow and drop off.
this leads to less photosynthesis and less growth

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23
Q

how does rose black spot spread?

A

spread in water or by the wind

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24
Q

How can rose black spot be treated?

A

fungicides
stripping the plant of its affected leaves

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25
Q

is malaria a fungal,viral,protist or bacterial disease?

A

protist

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26
Q

how is malaria spread?

A

part of malaria’s life cycle takes place inside a mosquito which is a vector.
the mosquito picks it up when they feed on infected animals.
they then pass it by feeding on other animals

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27
Q

what are the symptoms of malaria?

A

fevers
death
headaches

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28
Q

how can we prevent the spread of malaria?

A

stop mosquitoes from breeding
use insecticides or mosquito nets

29
Q

is salmonella a bacterial,fungal,protist or viral disease?

A

bacterial

30
Q

what are the symptoms of salmonella?

A

fever,stomach cramps, vomiting, diarrhoaea

31
Q

How is salmonella spread ?

A

eating food that has been contaminated with the bacteria , mostly raw poultry

32
Q

how is the spread of salmonella controlled in the uk ?

A

most poultry are given a vaccination

33
Q

is gonorrhoea a bacterial ,viral,protist or fungal disease?

A

bacterial

34
Q

how is gonorrhoea spread?

A

sexually transmitted

35
Q

what are the symptoms of gonorrhoea?

A

pain when urinating
thick yellow or green discharge

36
Q

what has made it harder to treat gonorrhoea?

A

was originally treated with penicillin but this has become trickier now becasue strains of the bacteria have become resistant to it.

37
Q

how can we prevent the spread of gonorrhoea?

A

treated with antibiotics
use barrier methods of contraception

38
Q

what are the 4 ways that we can reduce or prevent the spread of disease?

A

being hygenic- washing hands
destroying vectors- destroying their habitats
isolating infected indiciduals
vaccination

39
Q

descrribe the features of our bodies that prevent disease from getting inside in the first place.

A

the skin- acts as a barrier to pathogens, also secretes antimicrobial substances which kill pathogens
hair and mucus in nose trap particles that could contain pathogens
trachea and bronchi secrete mucus to trap pathogens
trachea and bronchi lined with cilia- hair like structure that waft the mucus up to the back of the throat where it can be swallowed
the stomach produces hydrochloric acid . this kill pathogens that made it that far

40
Q

what are the three ways that white blood cellscan destroy pathogens?

A

phagocytosis (engulfing a foreign cell and digesting it)
producing anti bodies
producing anti toxins

41
Q

how do the antibodies that are produced from white cells work?

A

every pathogen has a unique antigen
the antibodies are madeto lock onto the invaing cells so they can be found and destroyed by other white blood cells
the antibodies produced are specific to that type of antigen
antibodies are then produced rapidly and carried around the body to find all similat bacteria or viruses.
if the person is infected again, the white blood cells will rapidly produce the antibodies and kill it .

42
Q

How do vaccines work ?

A

vaccinations involve injecting a small amount of dead or inactive pathogens .
these carry antigens which cause your body to produce antibodies to attack them
therefore , if you get live pathogens of the same type , the white blood cells can rapidly mass produce antibodies and kill them

43
Q

What are the advantages of vaccines?

A

helped control many communicable diseases that were once common in the uk (polio,measils,rubella,mumps)
big outbraks of disease called epidemics ,can be prevented if a large percentage of the population is vaccinated

44
Q

what are the disadvantages of vaccines?

A

they dont always work
can result in a bad reaction e.g. swelling, seizures

45
Q

What do painkillers do?

A

releive pain
they dont tackle the cause of the disease or kill pathogens

46
Q

what do antibiotics do?

A

kill (or prevent the growth of ) bacteria causing the problem

47
Q

what is the painkiller aspirin used for and what plant does it come from?

A

used to lower fever
comes from willow

48
Q

what is digitalis used to treat ?

A

used to treat heart conditions

49
Q

where does digitalis come from?

A

a chemical found in foxgloves

50
Q

how was penicillin discovered?

A

alexander fleming was clearing out some petri dishes containing bacteria.
he noticed one of them had mould and the area around the mould was free of the bacteria.
he found that the mould was producting a substance that killed the bacteria.
this substance qas penicillin

51
Q

describe fully the first stage in drug testing.

A

in preclinical testing, the drugs are tested on human cells and tissues in the lab.
However, you can’t use human and tissue cells to test drugs that affect whole or multiple body systems.

52
Q

describe fully the second stage in drug testing.

A

the next step is to test the drug on live animals.
this is to test efficacy , to find out about its toxicity and to find the best dosage.
the law in britain states that any new drug must be tested on two different live mammals.

53
Q

what is meant by the efficacy of a drug?

A

whether the drug works and produces the effect your looking for

54
Q

describe fully the third stage of drug testing.

A

if the drug passes the test on animals then it is tested on human volunteers in a clinical trial.
first the drug is tested on healthy volunteers, this is to make sure it doesnt have any harmfull side effects when the body is working normally.
at the start of the trial, a very low dose of the drug is given and then graduallly increased

if the results on healthy vollunteers are good ,the drugs are tested on people suffereing with the illness. the optimum dose is found.

to test the efficiency, patients are randomly put into two groups.
one is given the new drug, the other is given a placebo . this is so doctors can see the actual difference the drug amkes.
it allows for the placebo effect.

clinical trials are blind- the patient doesnt know whether they get the placebo or not.
the results aren’t published until they have been through peer review , this helps prevent false claims.

55
Q

what type of cells are antibodies made from?

A

B-lymphocytes

56
Q

what are monoclonal antibodies produced from ?

A

produced from lots of clones of a single white blood cell.
this means all the antibodies are identical and will only target one specific protein antigen

57
Q

where are B-lymphocytes taken from when making monoclonal antibodies?

A

mice

58
Q

describe how monoclonal antibodies are made.

A

a mouse is injected with chosen antigen.
B-lymphocytes are taken from the mouse
the B-lymphocytes are fused with a tumor cell
this makes a hybridoma which is then cloned to produce many of them which then produce monoclonal antibodies

59
Q

Describe how pregnancy tests work .

A

pregnancy tests detect HGC hormone that is found in the urine of pregnant women only .
1) The part of the stick you wee on has antibodies to the hormone, with blue beads attached.
2) the test strip has some more antibodies to the hormone stuck on it.
3) if you are pregnant and you wee on the stick, the hormone binds to the antibodies on the blue beads, the urine moves up the stick carrying the hormone and the beads,
the beads and the hormone bind to teh antibodies on the strip so the blue beads get stuck turning it bue.

60
Q

what can monoclonal antibodies be used for in the lab for research ?

A

can be used to :
bind to hormones and other chemicals in the blood to measure their levels.
test blood samples in labs for certain pathogens
locate specific molecules on a cell or in a tissue

61
Q

how can scientists use monoclonal antibodies to locate specific molecules?

A

1) monoclonal antibosies are made that will bind to the specific molecules your looking for.
2) the antibodies are then bound to a fluorescent dye.
3) if the molecules are present, the monoclonal antibodies will attach to them and they can be detected using the dye.

62
Q

what are the disadvantages of monoclonal antibodies?

A

cause more side effects than were originally expected.
e.g. fever,vomiting,low blood pressure.
this means they are not as widely used as scientists origially thought they mgiht be

63
Q

what do plants need nitrates for?

A

to make protein for growth

64
Q

what do plants need magnesium ions for?

A

making chlorophyll

65
Q

what are the common signs that a plant has a disease ?

A

stunted growth
abnormal growths
spots on leaves
malformed stems or leaves
patches of decay
discolouration

66
Q

how can you identify what disease a plant has?

A

look up the signs in a gardening manual or gardening website
taking the infected plant to a laboratory where scientists can identify the pathogen
using testing kits that identify the pathogen using monoclonal antibodies

67
Q

what physical defences do plants have?

A

waxy cuticle on stems which provide a barrier to stop pathogens from entering
plant cells surrounded by cell walls made of cellulose. these form a physical barrier against pathogens
plants have layers of dead cell around their stems which act as a barrier.

68
Q

what chemical defences do plants have?

A

some produce antibacterial chemicals which kill bacteria
other plants produce poisons which can deter herbivores

69
Q

what mechanical defences do plants have?

A

some are adapted to have thorns and hairs to stop animal from touching and eating them
some have leaves that droop or cur, when something touches them
some mimic other organisms

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