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Josh Lee Biology > Topic 2 - Organisation > Flashcards

Topic 2 - Organisation Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are large multicellular organisms made up of?

A

Organ systems

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2
Q

What are cells?

A

The basic building blocks that make up all living organisms

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3
Q

What is the name of the process by which a cell becomes specialised for a particular job?

A

Differentiation

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4
Q

What are similar cells organised into?

A

Tissues

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5
Q

Define a tissue

A

A group of similar cells working together to carry out a particular function

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6
Q

What are some examples of tissues

A

Muscular tissue - contracts to move whatever its attached to.

Glandular tissue - Secretes chemicals like enzyme and hormones.

Epithelial tissue - covers some parts of the body

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7
Q

What are tissues organised into?

A

Organs

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8
Q

Define an organ

A

A group of different tissues working together to perform a particular function

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9
Q

What is an example of an organ?

A

The stomach.
Contains:

Muscular tissue
Glandular tissue
Epithelial tissue

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10
Q

What are organs organised into?

A

Organ systems

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11
Q

Define an organ system

A

A group or organs working together to perform a particular function.

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12
Q

What is an example of an organ system?

A

The digestive system.
Contains these organs:

Glands
Stomach and small intestine
Liver
Small intestine
Large intestine
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13
Q

What are enzymes?

A

Enzymes are catalysts produced by living things. They reduce the need for high temperatures and speed up the rate of useful chemical reactions.

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14
Q

What is the structure of an enzyme like?

A

Every enzyme has an active site with a unique shape that fits onto the substance involved in the reaction.
Enzymes can only catalyse one specific reaction as the active site is only suited to fit 1 substrate.
The active site changes shape a little when binding to substrate. Called ‘induced fit’.

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15
Q

What affects enzymes and how are they affected?

A

Higher temperature increases the rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction.
If too hot, bonds holding the enzyme together break, which changes the shape of the active site so substrate wont fit anymore. The enzyme is said to be DENATURED.
All enzymes have an optimum temperature they work best at.
pH also affects enzymes, if its too high or too low the enzyme can denature,
Enzymes also have an optimum pH

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16
Q

What is the equation for rate? For rate of reaction.

A

Rate = 1000/time

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17
Q

What do digestive enzymes do?

A

Break down big molecules into small molecules so they can pass easily through walls, eg digestive system and allow them to be absorbed into the blood stream.

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18
Q

What are some examples of enzymes and what they break down?

A

Carbohydrases eg amylase breaks down starch.

Protease breaks down protein.

Lipase breaks lipids

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19
Q

What is the function of bile?

A

It is alkaline so neutralises hydrochloric acid in the stomach and makes conditions alkaline in which enzymes work best in the small intestine in these conditions.

Emulsifies fat (breaks fat into tiny droplets). Gives larger surface area for the enzyme lipase to work on which makes digestion faster.

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20
Q

Where are enzymes used in the digestive produced?

A

Glands and gut lining

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21
Q

What is the function of salivary glands?

A

Produce amylase enzyme in the saliva

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22
Q

What is the function of the liver?

A

Produce bile which neutralises stomach acid and emulsifies fat.

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23
Q

What is the function of the gall bladder?

A

Where bile is stored before its released into the small intestine.

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24
Q

What is the function of the stomach?

A

Pummel food with its muscular walls.
Produces the protease enzyme, pepsin.

Produces hydrochloric acid for:
Killing bacteria
Give right pH for protease enzyme to work

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25
Q

What is the function of the pancreas?

A

Produces all enzymes (protease, lipase, amylase) and releases them into the small intestine,

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26
Q

What is the function of the small intestine?

A

Produces all enzymes (protease, lipase, amylase) to complete digestion.
Also where food is absorbed out of digestive system into the blood.

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27
Q

What is the function of the large intestine?

A

Where excess water is absorbed from the food.

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28
Q

What is the function of the rectum?

A

Where the faeces (made up of mainly indigestible food) are stored before they are released through the anus.

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29
Q

What is the function of the lungs?

A

Allows oxygen to get into your bloodstream and remove carbon dioxide from your blood.

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30
Q

Where are the lungs?

A

In the thorax. (Top part of your body).

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31
Q

What happens in the alveoli?

A

Gas exchange. CO2 diffuses into alveoli and O2 diffuses from it into the blood.

32
Q

What is the circulatory system made of? Remember it’s a double circulatory system.
How does blood flow work in it?

A

Heart
Blood vessels
Blood

Right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs to take in oxygen. Blood returns to heart.

Left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to other organs in the body. Deoxygenated blood returns back to heart for cycle again.

33
Q

What is the heart?

A

A pumping organ that keeps blood flowing around body. Walls of the heart are made of muscle tissue.

34
Q

What are the function of valves in the heart?

A

Make sure blood flows in the right direction by prevent it from flowing backwards.

35
Q

What are the 3 types of blood vessels and what do they do?

A

Arteries- Carry blood away from heart
Capillaries - Involved in exchange of materials at the tissues
Veins - Carry blood to heart

36
Q

What are adaptations of arteries?

A

Walls are strong and thick to handle high pressure of blood pumped out by heart.

Walls are thick compared to size of lumen (hole in middle).

Contain thick layers of muscle to make them strong. Elastic fibres allow them to stretch.

37
Q

What are adaptations of capillaries?

A

Arteries branch into capillaries.

They are really small and carry blood really close to every cell to exchange substances with them.

Permeable walls so substances can diffuse.

Supply food and oxygen, and take away waste like co2.

Walls usually 1 cell thick which increases rate of diffusion.

38
Q

What are adaptations of veins?

A

Capillaries eventually join up to form veins.

Blood is at lower pressure so walls aren’t as thick as arteries.

Bigger lumen to help blood flow.

Have valves to keep blood flowing in right direction.

39
Q

What is the function of coronary arteries?

A

Supply oxygenated blood to the heart.

40
Q

What is the function of a red blood cell?

A

Carry oxygen from the lungs to all cells in the body.

41
Q

What are adaptations of red blood cells?

A

Their shape is a biconcave disc which fives large surface area for absorbing oxygen.

They dont have a nucleus which allows more space for oxygen

Contain haemoglobin which binds to oxygen in lungs to become oxyhemoglobin. In body tissues the reverse happens so it splits to release oxygen and haemoglobin.

42
Q

What are adaptations of white blood cells?

A

Can change shape to eat unwelcome microorganisms in a process called phagocytosis.

Produce antibodies to fight microorganisms and antitoxins to neutralise any toxins.

43
Q

What are platelets and what are adaptations of it.

A

Small fragments of cells which have no nucleus.

Help the blood to clot a wound.

Lack of platelets can cause excessive bruising and bleeding.

44
Q

What is plasma?

A

Liquid which carries

Red and white blood cells and platelets.
Nutrients like glucose and amino acids.
Carbon dioxide
Urea
Hormones
Proteins
Antibodies and antitoxins.
45
Q

What are stents and what do they do?

A

They are tubes inserted inside arteries.
They keep them open, making sure blood can flow through.

They lower risk of heart attack in people with coronary heart disease.
Effective for long time and recovery time quick.

There can be risk of complications eg heart attack during the operation and risk of infection.
Also risk of developing blood clot near stent (thrombosis).

46
Q

What is a statin?

A

Drugs that can reduce the amount of ‘bad’ cholesterol in the bloodstream. This slows down rates of fatty deposits in arteries which couldve led to coronary heart disease.

47
Q

What are advantages/disadvantages of statins?

A

Advantages:

Reduce bad cholesterol so reduce risk of strokes, coronary heart disease and heart attacks.

Can increase amount of beneficial cholesterol.

Disadvantages:

They are long term so theres a risk someone could forget to take them

Can cause negative side effects eg headaches or more serious like kidney failure.

Effect isnt instant.

48
Q

What is an artificial heart and what are the advantages/disadvantages?

A

A mechanical device that pumps blood for a person whose heart has failed. Usually temporary until patient has found a donor.

Main advantage is theyre less likely to be rejected by immune system than donor heart.

Disadvantages:
Surgery can lead to bleeding and infection.
Dont work as well as natural healthy ones.
Parts of it could wear out.
Blood doesnt flow as smoothly which can lead to blood clots and stroke.

49
Q

What can happen to your heart valves and what solutions are there?

A

Valves can be damaged or weakened by heart attacks, infection or old age.

Damage can cause stiff valves or leaky valves so blood can flow both directions.

They can be replaced by biological valves from humans or mammals or mechanical valves (man made).

Artificial valves can still leave problems with blood clots.

50
Q

When is artificial blood used and how does it work?

A

Used to replace the lost volume of blood when you lose a lot of it.

Gives the patient enough time to produce new blood cells.

Ideally, artificial blood replaces the function of red blood cells so no need for blood transfusion but scientists are working on it.

51
Q

What is the definition of Health?

A

Health is the state of physical and mental wellbeing.

52
Q

What are communicable disease?

A

Those that can be spread

53
Q

What are non-communicable diseases?

A

Those that cannot spread.

54
Q

What are some diseases that cause other physical and mental health issues that dont immediately seem related?

A

People with immune system problems have increased chance of suffering from communicable disease since body is less able to defend against pathogen.

Some types of cancer can be triggered by infection by certain viruses.

Immune system reactions in body caused by infection can trigger allergic reactions.

Mental health issues can be triggered when someone is suffering from severe physical health problems.

55
Q

What are some other factors that may affect your health?

A

Balanced diet.

Stress

Life situation eg access to medicine

56
Q

What are some risk factors of causing a disease directly?

A

Smoking - Proven to directly cause cardiovascular disease, lung disease and lung cancer.

Obesity - Can directly cause type 2 diabetes by making body less resistant to insulin.

Drinking too much alcohol - Can cause liver disease

Radiation - Can cause cancer

57
Q

What are some risk factors that aren’t capable of directly causing disease?

A

Lack of exercise and high fat diet linked to increased chance of cardiovascular disease.

58
Q

How do non-communicable diseases affect financial problems?

A

Cost to NHS of research and treatment is huge.

Families may have to move or adapt their home which is costly.

59
Q

What is cancer?

A

Cancer is a disease caused by uncontrolled cell growth and division.

60
Q

What are the 2 different tumours and what are their features?

A

Benign - Where the tumour grows and there is no more room. Tumour stays in one place rather than invading other tissues in the body.
Isnt normally dangerous and isnt cancerous.

Malignant - Where tumour grows and spreads to neighbouring healthy tissues.
Cells can break off and spread to other parts of body through bloodstream. These malignant cells then invade healthy tissues elsewhere in the body and form secondary tumours.
Malignant tumours are dangerous and can be fatal. They are cancers.

61
Q

What are some risk factors associated with lifestyle for cancer?

A

Smoking - linked to lung cancer.

Obesity - linked to bowl, liver and kidney cancer.

UV exposure - linked to skin cancer.

Viral infection - for example hepatitis B and C can increase risk of liver cancer. The infection couldve been spread through sex or needles.

62
Q

What are some risk factors associated with genetics for cancer?

A

Sometimes you can inherit faulty genes that make you more susceptible to cancer.

Eg mutations in BRCA genes have been linked to and increased likelihood of developing breast cancer and ovarian cancer.

63
Q

What are examples of plant tissue?

A 
Epidermal tissue
Palisade mesophyll tissue
Spongy mesophyll tissue
Xylem and phloem
Meristem tissue
64
Q

What is the function of epidermal tissue

A

Covers the whole plant.

Covered with a waxy cuticle which helps reduce water loss by evaporation.

65
Q

What is the function of the palisade mesophyll tissue?

A

This is the part of the leaf where most photosynthesis happens.

Has lote of chloroplasts and near top of leaf where they can get most light.

66
Q

What is the function of spongy mesophyll tissue?

A

Found in the leaf.

Contains big air spaces to allow gases to diffuse in and out of cells. These air spaces increase the rate of diffusion of gases.

67
Q

What is the function of Xylem and Phloem

A

They transport things like water, mineral ions and food around the plant.

They form a network of vascular bundles which deliver water and other nutrients to entire leaf and take away glucose produced by photosynthesis.

Also support structure of plant

68
Q

What is the function of meristem tissue?

A

Found at the growing tips of shoots and roots and is able to differentiate into different types of plant cell allowing the plant to grow.

69
Q

How are tissue leaves adapted for efficient gas exchange?

A

The lower epidermis is full of stomata which let CO2 diffuse directly into the leaf.

The opening and closing of stomata is controlled by guard cells in response to environmental conditions.

Air spaces in spongy mesophyll increase rate of diffusion.

70
Q

What do phloem tubes do?

A

Columns made of elongated LIVING cells
They allow cell sap to flow through small pores in end walls.

They transport food substances made in the leaves to the rest of the plant for immediate use or storage.
Transport goes in both directions.
This process is called translocation.

71
Q

What do xylem tubes do?

A

Made of dead cells joined end to end with a hole in the middle.
Theyre strengthened with a material called lignin.

They carry water and mineral ions from roots to stem and leaves.

The movement of water from the roots, through xylem and out of leaves is called the transpiration stream.

72
Q

What happens during the process of transpiration?

A

Transpiration is caused by the evaporation and diffusion of water from a plant’s surface. Most transpiration happens at the leaves.

The evaporation causes a slight shortage of water in leaf so more water is drawn up from rest of plant through xylem tubes to replace it.

This means more water is drawn up from the roots and theres a constant transpiration stream of water through the plant.

73
Q

What is transpiration rate affected by?

A

Light intensity - Brighter the light, greater the transpiration rate.
(Stomata close as it gets darker so less water is lost)

Temperature - Warmer it is, the faster transpiration happens.
(Water particles have more energy to evaporate and diffuse out of stomata.)

Air flow - The better the air flow around a leaf, the greater the transpiration rate.
(Creates low concentration of water particles outside the leaf so diffusion happens quicker as water moves from high concentration in the leaf to low concentration out the leaf)

Humidity - The drier the air around a leaf, the greater the transpiration rate.
(Once again, creates greater concentration gradient)

74
Q

How can you estimate the rate of transpiration?

A

Measure the uptake of water by a plant. This is because you can assume the water uptake is directly related to the water loss by leaves. Look picture of diagram of this.

75
Q

How are guard cells adapted to open and close stomata?

A

When the plants have lots of water, guard cells fill with it and turgid which makes stomata open so gases can be exchanged for photosynthesis.

When plant is short of water, guard cells lose water and become flaccid, making the stomata close. This helps too much water vapour escaping.

Thin outer walls and thickened inner walls make the opening and closing work.

Sensitive to light and close at night to save water without losing out on photosynthesis.

Usually find more stomata on underside of leaves than at the top. The lower surface is shaded and cooler so less water is lost through stomata than if they were on the top.

Josh Lee Biology (6 decks)

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