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Biology A2 Unit 1 - Physiology, Coordination And Control, And Ecosytems > Topic 2 - Immunity > Flashcards

Topic 2 - Immunity Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a pathogen

A

A disease causing microorganism

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2
Q

How does an infection occur

A

If the pathogen gets into the host and colonises its tissues

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3
Q

How does a disease occur

A

When an infection leads to recognisable symptoms in the host

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4
Q

What is an epidemic

A

An outbreak of an infectious disease that spreads rapidly among individuals of a population at the same time

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5
Q

What is a pandemic

A

An outbreak of a disease that occurs over a wide geographic area and affects an exponentially high proportion of the population

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6
Q

What are the three lines of defence in the body to resist pathogens

A

To prevent entry
If this fails, phagocytes are sent to gather at the site of infection to ingest the pathogen
If this fails, the body targets that particular pathogen, in a specific immune response

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7
Q

What are the barriers of pathogen entry

A

The skin, consists of layers of dead cells filled with a tough protein (keratin) and oily secretion
Tears and saliva that contain lysozyme
Mucus which traps microorganisms and contains lysozyme
Acid in the stomach

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8
Q

How do pathogens enter the body

A

Through broken skins or via the lungs and intestines

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9
Q

What are 2 types of phagocytes at accumulate at the site of infection

A

Polymorphs and macrophages

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10
Q

What is the immune response, and what white blood cell does it involve

A

A specific response to the detection of pathogens in the body, involving lymphocytes

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11
Q

What is an antigen

A

A foreign or ‘non-self’ molecule that is carried on the cell-surface membrane of pathogens

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12
Q

What is a special protein receptor

A

A receptor carried on the cell-surface membrane of a lymphocyte, which is complementary in shape to a specific antigen

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13
Q

What are stem cells

A

Unspecialised cells that can give rise to a variety of specialised cells

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14
Q

Why is there no response to ‘self’ antigens

A

There are no lymphocytes set up to respond to the molecules of the individuals cells

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15
Q

What are the two specific types of Lymphocytes

A

B-Cells and T-Cells

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16
Q

What is the difference in where B and T cells mature

A

B-Cells continue maturing in the Bone Marrow
T-Cells mature in the Thymus

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17
Q

What immune response are B-Lymphocytes involved in

A

Antibody-mediated immunity

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18
Q

What type of immune response are T-Lymphocytes involved in

A

Cell-mediated immunity

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19
Q

What is the nature of the immune response in B-Lymphocytes

A

They secrete antibodies which counter the antigen-carrying pathogens

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20
Q

What is the nature of the immune response in T-Lymphocytes

A

They attack infected cells with antigen present on the membrane

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21
Q

How does a Lymphocyte become activated/ sensitised, and what do they do once they become sensitised

A

It comes into contact with a ‘non-self’ antigen, they divide by mitosis to clone and differentiate into a variety of cells

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22
Q

What are antibodies

A

Secreted material from the Cloned B-Cells involved in antibody-mediated immunity

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23
Q

What are immunoglobulins

A

Globular protein antibodies

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24
Q

What part of the antibody is specific to a particular antigen

A

The binding site

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25
Q

What are some ways in which antibodies can function

A

They may neutralise toxins produced by bacteria - antitoxins
Clump or agglutinate bacteria - agglutinins
Attaching to viruses to prevent entry to host cells
Destroy bacterial cell walls, causing lysis
Attach to bacteria, so phagocytic cells can identify them

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26
Q

What are the four steps in antibody mediated immunity

A
  1. Bacteria enters the body
  2. Bacterial antigen is recognised by the correct B-Cell with the complementary receptor
  3. The sensitised B-Cell divides by mitosis to produce plasma cells and memory cells
  4. Plasma cells produce antibodies, which destroy the bacteria
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27
Q

What are the 4 different types of cloned T-Cells

A

Killer T-Cells
Helper T-Cells
Memory T-Cells
Suppressor T-Cells

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28
Q

How do Killer T-Cells work

A

They destroy infected cells directly by attaching to the antigens on the surface of the target cell and realising preforin, which produces pores within the cell-surface membrane, resulting in lysis of the cells

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29
Q

How do Helper T-Cells,work

A

They secrete cytokines which promote the activity of other cells, I.e they stimulate B-Cells to produce plasma cells, and they activate Killer T-Cells

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30
Q

How do Memory T-Cells work

A

They stay in the body, so that if the antigen appears again, it results in rapid destruction of the cells with the antigen present

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31
Q

How do Suppressor T-Cells work

A

They release their own cytokines after the successful elimination of the pathogen, which signals the deactivation of T-Cells and B-Cells

32
Q

What are the 4 steps of Cell-Mediated Immunith

A
  1. The host cell becomes infected with viruses with viral antigens present
  2. The viral antigen is recognised by the correct T-Cell with the complementary receptor
  3. The sensitised T-Cell divides by mitosis to produce different types of T-Cell
  4. The Killer T-Cells recognise infected cells and destroy them before viruses reproduce
33
Q

How to B-Cells and T-Cells complement eachother

A

Plasma B-Cells destroy ‘free’ pathogens, and Killer T-Cells destroy the infected cells

34
Q

What are some other cells that Killer T-Cells destroy

A

Cancer cells
Cells of Transplanted Tissue

35
Q

What are the two types of immunity

A

Passive and active

36
Q

What is passive immunity

A

Occurs when an individual receives antibodies from another source

37
Q

What are the two types of passive immunity

A

Natural and artificial

38
Q

How does natural passive immunity occur

A

When antibodies pass naturally from mother to baby across the placenta and in the mothers breast milk

39
Q

When does artificial passive immunity occur

A

When antibodies are administered by injection. They can be obtained from a person recovering from injection, from an animal, or as monoclonal antibodies produced by genetically modified mouse cells

40
Q

Why is passive immunity temporary

A

The antibodies are used up in antigen-antibody reactions and the recipient has no plasma cells to make more

41
Q

What is serum

A

Blood plasma without clotting factors, but contains antibodies

42
Q

What is active immunity

A

Occurs when an antigen enters the body and stimulates the body’s immune system to produce antibodies and memory cells

43
Q

What are the two types of active immunity

A

Natural and artificial

44
Q

When does natural active immunity occur

A

When a person is infected

45
Q

What is the difference in the primary and secondary response

A

The secondary response has an immediate start
The secondary response has faster production of antibodies, and a higher maximum concentration
The secondary response lasts a longer time

46
Q

Why is the secondary response faster than the primary response

A

Memory cells produced in the primary response, destroys the antigens if they show again in the secondary response

47
Q

What is artificial active immunity

A

It involves vaccination

48
Q

What is vaccination

A

It involves injecting a person with antigenic material that has been rendered harmless but leaves the surface antigens intact

49
Q

What is a booster vaccination

A

A secondary injection of a vaccine, which further heightens the immune system

50
Q

What is herd immunity

A

Occurs when a large percentage of a population has become immune to an infection, so providing a measure of protection for individuals who are not

51
Q

What is a monoclonal antibody

A

An antibody produced from a single clone of plasma cells. Thus, they are identical and are complementary to a single, specific antigen

52
Q

What is an immunoassay

A

A test to measure the presence of a molecule through the use of an antibody

53
Q

What is a bio marker

A

A naturally occurring molecule, often a protein, which can be detected and acts as an indicator of a disease or the effects of its treatment

54
Q

What do successful organ transplants rely on

A

Tissue typing
Use of X-Rays
Immunosuppression

55
Q

What is tissue typing

A

Where the compatibility of the donor and the recipient cell-surface membrane are similar and then donor tissue is used for which there is an optimal match

56
Q

Why are X-Rays used in organ transplants

A

To irradiate bone marrow and lymph tissues, so as to inhibit the production of lymphocytes and therefore slow down rejection

57
Q

Why is immunosuppression used in organ transplants

A

To inhibit DNA replication, cell division and the cloning of lymphocytes, and so delay the rejection of the graft

58
Q

What is the ABO blood system

A

The blood-type system determining the presence of anti-A and anti-B antibodies in people who lack corresponding antigens from birth

59
Q

What antigens are present in the blood groups A, B, AB and O

A

A - A
B - B
AB - A and B
O - none

60
Q

What antibodies are present in the blood groups A, B, AB and O

A

A - anti-B
B - anti-A
AB - none
O - both anti-A and anti-B

61
Q

What are agglutinins

A

If they encounter red blood cells with the complementary antigen, they will cause them to stick together or agglutinate

62
Q

What occurs in an unsuccessful blood transfusion

A

Donated blood with agglutinate in the recipients blood system, which clumps blood and would block capillary networks, which cause organ failure and death

63
Q

What blood group can receive A blood

A

A - Yes
B - No
AB - Yes
O - No

64
Q

What blood group can receive B blood

A

A - No
B - Yes
AB - Yes
O - No

65
Q

What blood groups can receive AB blood

A

A - No
B - No
AB - Yes
O - No

66
Q

What blood groups can receive O blood

A

A - Yes
B - Yes
AB - Yes
O - Yes

67
Q

What blood group is the universal donor, and why

A

Blood group O, as it lacks both A and B antigens and is safe to use in all transfusions

68
Q

What blood group is the universal recipient and why

A

Blood group AB, as it lacks both anti-A and anti-B antibodies, so can safely receive blood of any blood type

69
Q

What is the Rhesus system

A

Depends on whether a marker protein is present

70
Q

What is the difference between Rh -ve and Rh +ve

A

The rhesus antigen. If a person possesses it, they are Rh +ve, and if they don’t they are Rh -ve

71
Q

What antibodies do Rh -ve people produce

A

Anti-D antibodies

72
Q

How is an Rh -ve mother giving birth to two Rh +ve babies dangerous

A

Once a Rh -ve mother has given birth to a Rh +ve baby, the mother produces anti-D antigens. Any subsequent Rh +ve baby may receive anti-D from the mother will result in agglutination of the baby’s blood

73
Q

What is an antibiotic

A

Substances produced by microorganisms that act against bacteria

74
Q

What is antibiotic resistance

A

When an antibiotic becomes less effective due to the continuous use of it

75
Q

How can you reduce the risk of antibiotic resistance

A

Antibiotics are only used when necessary
A person prescribed antibiotics completes the course
Hospitals take care to no spread bacteria between patients
Consideration to using more than one antibiotic to treat a disease
Some antibiotics are seldom used and kept as a ‘last resort’

76
Q

What is sepsis

A

The presence in tissues of harmful bacteria and their toxins, through infection of a wound

Biology A2 Unit 1 - Physiology, Coordination And Control, And Ecosytems (9 decks)

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