Topic 2 - Evolution of Humans

Question 1

how has the earth changed over the past 15 million years?

Answer 1

over the past 15 million years, the earths climate has been cooling with a particularly cold phase c.2.6 Ma called a glacial interspersed with warmer inter-glacial - we are currently in an inter-glacial (holocene)

Question 2

what forms earths crust?

Answer 2

Earths crust is a patchwork of individual plates that form continents and ocean floors constantly moving relative to one another. they influenced migration and dispersal of plants and animals

Question 3

what did mountain building effect?

Answer 3

they caused mountain building which has affected atmospheric circulation patterns and majorly effected ocean currents and climate

Question 4

how are climactic and other environmental changes impact on evolution?

Answer 4

climactic and other environmental changes of the last 70Ma are important driving force in evolution as environmental variability leads to expansion, contraction and fragmentation of habitats

Question 5

what does habitat change test?

Answer 5

the process of habitat change tests ability of populations to adapt, sometimes resulting in extinction, migration or the emergence of a new species.

Question 6

what are humans?

Answer 6

Humans are apes belonging to the superfamily Hominoidea along with chimps, gorillas etc. Humans are a special subgroup called Hominins, morphologically and genetically our closest relatives are chimps.

Question 7

what are the differences between chimps and humans?

Answer 7

the differences between humans and chimps are of degree rather than kind, pelvis, backbone, foot, dentition and brain size and complexity are some of those differences

Question 8

what characteristics are different in humans and chimps?

Answer 8

they also differ in characteristics, for example hunting is a distinctly human trait.

Question 9

how do humans and chimps differ genetically?

Answer 9

Apes and humans also differ in their genetic characteristics. we share 98.7% similarity in DNA but differences have arisen through ‘point mutations’ over time and have accumulated at a known rate. this can be used as a ‘molecular clock’ to give a measure of the time that has elapsed since the ape-hominin split.

Question 10

where do genetic and fossil evidence place human origins?

Answer 10

genetic and fossil evidence places human origins in Africa as most fossils are recovered from the East African Rift Valley or South African cave sites.

Question 11

what has the EARV emerged as?

Answer 11

the EARV has emerged as the result of massive geological faulting coupled with intense volcanic activity resulting in rapid accumulation of sediments bearing extinct animals including hominins that can be dated by radiometric techniques.

Question 12

what mix do bipedal apes have?

Answer 12

Bipedal apes have a mix of primitive and advanced features. their apelike features include a small brain with large incisors and canines where their homo-like features include being bipedal and the morphology of their pelvis, leg and foramen magnum

Question 13

when did Australopithecus live?

Answer 13

Australopithecus lived several million years after the evolutionary split predicted by the molecular clock theory. earlier fossils however, are few in number, very fragmentary and provide no conclusive evidence of bipedalism

Question 14

what emerged after 3Ma?

Answer 14

after 3Ma, 2 forms of Australopith emerged, gracile and robust that had massive jaws and teeth, sagittal crest and zygomatic arches

Question 15

what were australopithecines adapted for? why were they not classed as the same genome as humans tho?

Answer 15

Australopithecines were adapted for bipedal walking but not sufficiently similar to modern humans to be classed in the same genus due to their ape-sized brains, more ‘primitive’ dentition’s and different morphology of the pelvis and thigh bone

Question 16

when do the earliest members of the genus Homo appear?

Answer 16

earliest member of genus Homo appear 2.4 million years ago, attributed to genus homo due to their association with stone tools

Question 17

what was discovered about H. Habilis?

Answer 17

H. Habilis once thought to be the only large brained hominin living in Africa c. 2Ma although reassessment of fossil material discovered that several different forms of early homo co-existed c.2.4-1.4Ma

Question 18

what has early human behavior been reconstructed from?

Answer 18

early human behavior has been reconstructed from evidence found in 100m thick sequence of lake, river and volcanic deposits at Olduvai

Question 19

what was found at Olduvai?

Answer 19

here, stone artefacts were found in distinct concentrations, some associating with animal bones leading to 3 broad functional categories, butchering, living and quarry sites.

Question 20

what were the Olduvai sites originally thought to be?

Answer 20

Olduvai sites originally thought to be evidence of early hunting although now consensus dictates that they were gatherers or scavengers

Question 21

what was found in sites of China and Indonesia? how do we know?

Answer 21

fossils of H.erectus discovered at sites in China and Indonesia characterised by big brains and modern body proportions

Question 22

how was expansion into temperate regions facilitated?

Answer 22

expansion into temperate regions was facilitated by advances in technology which appeared in Africa c. 1.5Ma such as bifacial handaxes and cleavers used primarily as butchery tools

Question 23

where are there finds of Olduvai-style tools?

Answer 23

there are finds of Olduvai style stone tools in Europe - especially Mediterranean Europe although no fossils of H.erectus or H.ergaster have been found making it a hotly debated topic

Question 24

when do the earliest hominin fossils date to? where were they found?

Answer 24

earliest hominin fossils in Europe found in caves in Spain dated 1.2-1.1Ma by palaeomagnetism, radiometric dating and biostratigraphy

Question 25

what kind of sites are rare in Europe?

Answer 25

within Europe, sites older than 0.5Ma are rare. one explanation states that sites have not been preserved and early hominin population was very small

Question 26

what else may have inhibited colonisation in Europe

Answer 26

there was also oscillations of climate that may have resulted in several unsuccessful attempts to colonise Europe

Question 27

what did the hominins need to colonise Eurasia? what evidence do we have?

Answer 27

Hominins may have needed fire and cooking to colonise Eurasia, burnt materials (ash and bone) was found on sites in Africa back to 1.5Ma although this could be wild fire as there were no recognisable hearths

Question 28

was early technology confined to stone?

Answer 28

early technology was not confined to stone as wood was used extensively, there are wooden spears belonging to Acheulian time range on several sites in places such as Essex, Slovenia and Germany

Question 29

when was Europe colonised?

Answer 29

hominins colonised Europe before 1Ma but it was perhaps only extensively settled after 0.5Ma and archaeological remains of the period before 0.3Ma belong to the lower paleolithic

Question 30

what was lower paleolithic succeeded by?

Answer 30

Lower paleolithic was succeeded by middle paleolithic and H.heidelbergensis by neanderthals, the transition taking place c0.3Ma

Question 31

how do Neanderthals compare to h=modern humans?

Answer 31

compared to modern humans, neanderthals were shorter and stockier, with relatively short limbs. Body proportion are thought to be an adaptation to life in a colder climate.

Question 32

what is neanderthal culter called? what is a feature of this?

Answer 32

Neanderthal material culture is known as middle paleolithic or mousterian. mousterian tool kits tend to be dominated by flake tools and these first humans were known to bury their dead

Question 33

what did neanderthals represent?

Answer 33

Neanderthals represented a successful adaptation to climactic conditions of last glaciation but they became extinct in Europe c.40ka coinciding with the arrival of anatomically modern humans

Question 34

when was the first securely dated H.sapian found and dated?

Answer 34

earliest securely dated H.sapians found in Morocco c.315ka and appear to have spread out of Africa on various occasions only successfully colonising Europe after 50ka bringing new technology known as upper paleolithic

Question 35

what was a feature of the upper paleolithic tool kit?

Answer 35

upper paleolithic toolkits feature tools made on blades and increased use of abrupt retouched

Question 36

how did the pace of cultural development increase?

Answer 36

the pace of cultural development appears to have increased dramatically with the development of sophisticated hunting technology such as flint points shaped as spearheads and solutrean shouldered or leaf points being the most technically advanced

Question 37

what so spearheads made of bone show?

Answer 37

Spear points made of bone show a development from split-based to beveled ends appearing in the Aurignacian and are manufactured through to the end of the paleolithic

Question 38

what are the earliest examples of bone harpoons?

Answer 38

the earliest examples of bone harpoons date to the Magdalenian, perforated batons of reindeer antler was used and wear and breakage patterns suggest use in combination with ropes or straps

Question 39

where are spear-throwers first known from?

Answer 39

spear-throwers are first known from the Soultrean enabling greater power and distance, often used by groups unfamiliar with the bow and arrow

Question 40

what did the bow and arrow replace?

Answer 40

bow and arrow was a very significant innovation probably in use by the late magdalenian, coinciding with the disappearance of the spear thrower.

Question 41

when is the first evidence for mass fishing found?

Answer 41

first evidence for fishing on a significant scale is seen in the upper paleolithic via fishing gorges and representation in upper paleolithic art.

Question 42

where are the best preserved finds known?

Answer 42

the best preserved finds are known in eastern Europe and tell us they constructed large tent like dwellings with wooden framed, skin-covered, structures weighted with mammoth bones and internal hearths pointing to improved fire technology

Question 43

what were animal skins used for? what does this suggest?

Answer 43

there was extensive use of animal skins for clothing and common finds in Europe suggest widespread use of fitted skin garments sewed together with a needle made of bone or ivory

Question 44

are garments preserved? is not how do we know that was what was used?

Answer 44

Garments are not preserved but can be inferred from representations in art that they were similar to Inuit garments

Question 45

did paleolithic ways of life continue into the post glacial periods?

Answer 45

in Europe and some other parts of the world, the Paleolithic way of life continued into the post-glacial period. people adapted their way of life to different environmental conditions and new food resources, this adaptation is known as mesolithic.

Question 46

what changed with the return of inter-glacial conditions?

Answer 46

with the return of inter-glacial conditions c.11.5ka, hunter gatherers in some parts of the world developed agriculture starting in the Near East and China expanding to Europe, the British isles and Scandinavia bringing an end to the Mesolithic and transitioning into the Neolithic.

Question 47

what can mortuary ritual signify?

Answer 47

mortuary ritual can signify social structure, individual identity and belief systems.

Question 48

what does the introduction of elaborate burial signify?

Answer 48

in Europe, elaborate burial is commonplace from c.30000 years ago corresponding with anatomically modern humans perhaps reflecting the cognitive differences between AMH and Neanderthals

Question 49

is there evidence for intentional burial before the upper Paleolithic?

Answer 49

evidence for intentional burial prior to the the upper paleolithic in Europe is the topic of some debate as there is apparent evidence of funerary caching although there is very little evidence for ritual

Question 50

what is one example of this?

Answer 50

one example of this is Shanidar cave where the remains of 10 Neanderthals was found with 4 of them in rock falls and one being an apparent funerary cache

Question 51

how is intentional and elaborate burial evident?

Answer 51

intentional and elaborate burial is evident as they were furnished with grave goods perhaps with symbolic meaning

Question 52

why was there relatively few child burials?

Answer 52

there was relatively few child burials suggesting that children are treated differently in death reflective of the different roles or attitudes towards children in life, although, the child burials we do know are very elaborate

Question 53

who only gained burials for a long period of time?

Answer 53

there was a very small number of burials for a long period of time, less than 5 per millennium making burial an exceptional event limited to those who had a special position in their community

Question 54

is burial and mortuary practice the same thing?

Answer 54

burial is not only the mortuary practice but defleshing, cannibalism and the use of remains to make artefacts or ornaments

Question 55

when is elaborate burial commonplace?

Answer 55

elaborate burial is commonplace after the neanderthal distinction although burial is practiced from the Middle Paleolithic

Question 56

where are some of the earliest forms of figurative art found?

Answer 56

some of earliest forms of figurative art are known from the upper paleolithic of Europe with 2 main categories, parietal and portable art

Question 57

what are represented in statuettes?

Answer 57

there are several hundred examples of mobility art that take the form of palm-sized statuettes. large game animals and carnivores are commonly represented

Question 58

what do the earliest human images look like?

Answer 58

earliest human images date from the upper paleolithic and are conventionalised and styled depictions of the female body.

Question 59

what is represented in parietal art?

Answer 59

there is a wide range of subjects in parietal art. large game animals especially are common where small animals are rare

Question 60

are humans represented in cave art

Answer 60

in cave at, representations of humans are relatively rare. complete bodies are very rare with parts of bodies being more common place

Question 61

what was cave art created by?

Answer 61

the neuropsychological model suggests that cave art was created by shamans to record their visions after taking hallucinogenic drugs or otherwise inducing a trance

Question 62

what does conventional view on cave art dictate?

Answer 62

conventional view dictates that cave art first appeared in Europe in the upper paleolithic although cave paintings dating at least 65ka have been found questioning if neanderthals made cave paintings.