Topic 2 (demographic trends in the UK since 1900: birth rates, death rates, fam size, life expectancy, ageing pop, migration and globalisation)

Question 1

What are the reasons for the decline in the birth rate 1900-2001?

Answer 1

changes in the position of women
decline in the infant mortality rate
children now being seen as economic liabilities
child centredness

Question 2

What is the IMR?

How has the decline in the infant mortality rate lead to the decline in birth rate?

Answer 2

IMR- measures the number of infants who die before their first birthday, per thousand babies born alive, per year.
HARPER - fall in IMR leads to fall in birth rate. because , if many infants die, parents have more children to ‘replace’ those they have lost, thereby increasing the birth rate. if infants survive, parents will have fewer of them

Question 3

The reasons for the fall in UK’s IMR:

Answer 3

improved housing and better sanitation (flushing toilets + clean drinking water, reducing infectious disease.
better nutrition
better knowledge of hygiene, child health + welfare
a fall in the number of married women working may have improved their health
improved services for mother + children, antenatal + postnatal clinics.

Question 4

Statistic to show medical developments as a contribution to the decline in IMR

Answer 4

By 1950 UK’s IMR had fallen to 30 and by 2012 it stood at 4.

Question 5

How has children as economic liabilities impacted the decline in birth rate?

Answer 5

until late 19th century, children were economic asset to their parents. sent out to work from an early age to earn an income.
since late 19th century, children have gradually become an economic liability.
laws banning child labour, introducing compulsory schooling and raising school leaving age mean that children remain economically dependent on their parents for longer and longer. changing norms about what children have a right to expect from their parents in material terms mean that cost of bringing up children has risen. as a result of these financial pressures, parents now feel less willing/ able to have a large family.

Question 6

How has child centredness impacted the decline in birth rate?

Answer 6

increasing child centredness of both family and society as a whole means that childhood is now socially constructed as a uniquely important period in the individual’s life. in terms of family size, this encouraged a shift from ‘quantity’ to ‘quality’ - parents now have fewer children and pay more attention and provide more resources on the few they have.

Question 7

What were the future trends in birth rates ?

Answer 7

There had been a increase in births since 2001 because of migration.
babies born outside of UK accounted for 25% of all births in 2011.
the projection for period up to 2041 expects that the annual number of births to be fairly constant at around 800 000 per year.

Question 8

What was the impact of fertility changes on public services and policies?

Answer 8

lower birth rate means fewer schools and maternity/child health services may be needed. also affects the cost of maternity/ paternity leave and the types of housing that need to be built. 
there are political decisions that need to be made:government could decide to have smaller class sizes instead of reducing the number of schools.
one effect of women having fewer children is that the average age of the population is rising: therer are more old people relative to young people.

Question 9

What was the impact of fertility changes on the family?

Answer 9

smaller families mean women are more likely to be able to go out to work, creates dual earner couple typical of many professional families. However, better off couples may be able to have larger families + still afford childcare that allows them to work full time.
Failing fertility rates means fewer children. childhood may become a lonelier experience as fewer children will have sibling + more childless adults may mean fewer voices speaking up in support of children’s interests . fewer children could mean that they will come to be more valued.

Question 10

What was the impact of fertility changes on the dependency ratio?

Answer 10

dependency ratio: relationship between the size of the working/ productive part of the population and the size of the non-working/dependent part of the population.
earnings, savings + taxes of working population must support dependent population. children make up a large part of the dependent population, so a fall in the number of children reduces the ‘burden of dependency’ on the working population. However, in longer term, fewer babies being born will mean fewer young adults and a smaller working population + so the burden of dependency may begin to increase.

Question 11

How has changes in the position of women caused the decline in the birth rate (1900-2001)?

Answer 11

the changes in position of women:
-legal equality w/ men, including the right to vote.
-increased educational opportunities - girls now do better at school than boys.
-more women in paid employment, laws outlawing unequal pay and sex discrimination.
-changes in attitudes to family life and women’s role
-Easier access to divorce
-access to abortion + reliable contraception, gives women more control over their fertility.
HARPER (2012) - education of women is the most important reason for the long-term fall in birth rates. this has led to a change in mind-set among women, results in fewer children. many women are choosing to delay childbearing or to not have children at all, to pursue a career.

Question 12

Statistic to show the fall in death rate

Answer 12

1900 death rate at 19.

2012 dramatically fallen to 9.8.

Question 13

What are the reasons for the decline in the death rate during the 20th century?

Answer 13

The decline in deaths from infectious diseases
Improved nutrition
Medical improvements
Smoking and Diet
Public health measures and environmental improvements

Question 14

Explain the decline in deaths from infectious diseases:

Answer 14

TRANTER (1996) = over 3/4 of decline in death rate (from 1850 to 1970) was due to fall in deaths from infectious diseases. most of the decline in death rate occurred among infants, children + young adults.
By 1950’s, ‘disease of affluence’ (heart disease + cancers) replaced infectious diseases as main cause of death. these diseases affect middle aged and old, more than young.
possible reason for decline in deaths from infection: population began to develop natural resistance or some diseases became less powerful. however thought that social factors had a greater impact.

Question 15

How has improved nutrition led to the decline in death rate?

Answer 15

MCKEOWN Improved nutrition and living standards accounted for up to half the reduction in death rates.
Better nutrition increased resistance to infection + increased survival chances of those who did become infected.

Question 16

How have medical improvements led to the decline in death rate?

Answer 16

before 1950s, played no part in reduction of deaths from infectious disease. after this, improved medical knowledge, techniques + organisation did help to reduce death rates.
advances: intro of antibiotics, immunisation, blood transfusions, improved maternity services, NHS was set up in 1948.
recently, improved medication reduced deaths from heart disease by one-third.

Question 17

How has patterns in smoking habits and diet led to the decline of death rate?

Answer 17

HARPER believes greatest fall in death rates in recent decades has come from reduction in no. of people smoking.
21st cent > obesity replaced smoking. in 2012 1/4 of adults were obese. Harper suggest we may be moving to ‘american’ health culture where lifestyles are unhealthy but where long lifespan is achieved by use of costly medication.

Question 18

How has public health measures and environmental improvements led to the decline of death rates?

Answer 18

20th century = more effective central/ local gov. with power to pass + enforce laws led to range of improvements in public health and quality of environment.
included improvements in housing, purer drinking water, improved sewage disposal methods. the clean air acts reduced air pollution.

Question 19

What does Life expectancy mean?

what are the trends/ patterns regarding life expectancy?

Answer 19

life expectancy = refers to how long on average a person born in a given year can expect to live.
as death rates fallen, life expectancy increased.
If trend to greater longevity continues, HARPER 2012 predicts that we will achieve ‘radical longevity’ with many more centenarians (people over 100).

Question 20

what are the gender, region and ethnic differences around life expectancy?

Answer 20

• women generally live longer than men , although gap has narrowed due to changes in employment and lifestyle.
• those living in the north and Scotland have lower life expectancy than those living in the south.
• working class men in unskilled/ routine jobs are nearly 3 times as likely to die before they are 65 compared with men in professional jobs.
• those in poorest areas of England die on average 7 years earlier than those in richest areas (WALKER 2011)

Question 21

Statistic to show the average age of UK pop increasing

Answer 21

1911 - 25
2013 - 40.3
2037 - projected to reach 42.8

Question 22

What is the ageing population a result of ?

Answer 22

increasing life expectancy: people are living longer into old age.
declining infant mortality: nowadays very few infants die early in life.
declining fertility: fewer younger people are born in comparison to the number of old people in the pop.

Question 23

What are the effects of an ageing population?

Answer 23

need for public services
changes in family structure
single-person pensioner households
the dependency ratio
policy implications
ageism

Question 24

What effect has the ageing population made on the dependency ratio?

Answer 24

The non-working old are an economically dependent group who need to be provided for those of working age (through taxation, to pay for pensions and health care).
As the number of retired people rises, this increases the dependency ratio and the burden on the working population.
However, it would be wrong to assume that ‘old’ means that someone is economically.
The age at which people can draw their pension is rising; from 2020 both men and women will have to wait till they are 66 to access the state pension.
It should also be noted that the ageing population is offset by a declining number of dependent children.

Question 25

What is AGEISM?

What effect has the ageing population had on ageism?

Answer 25

AGEISM = the negative stereotyping and unequal treatment of people based on their age.
this can be shown in many ways such as discrimination in employment and unequal treatment in health care.
Ageism is thought to be the result of ‘structured dependency’. The old are largely excluded from paid work, leaving them economically dependent on their families or the state.
PHILIPSON (1982) the old are no use to capitalism because they are no longer productive. As a result, the state is unwilling to support them adequately and so the family, often takes responsibility of their care.
in modern society, age becomes important in role allocation - creating fixed life stages and age-related identities.

Question 26

What do postmodernists say about ageism?

Answer 26

they argue that the fixed, orderly stages of the life course have broken down. 
trends such as children dressing in adult styles, later marriage and early retirements all, begin to blur the line between life stages. this gives individuals greater choice of lifestyles, whatever their age.
HUNT argues that this means we can choose a lifestyle and identity regardless of our age - it no longer determines who we are or how we live.
the old become a market for a vast range of 'body maintenance' goods and services through which they can create their identities. EG. cosmetic surgery, exercise equipment, anti-ageing products. these trends break down ageist stereotypes found in modern society.
PILCHER (1995) - argues that inequalities such as class + gender remain important:
middle class have better occupational pensions and greater savings from higher salaries.
poorer old people have a shorter life expectancy + suffer more infirmity (physical + mental weakness).

Question 27

What policy implications were made due to the ageing population?

Answer 27

Hirsch - Argues that several important social policies will need to change to tackle the new problems posed by an ageing population. The main problem will be how to finance the longer old age. this can be done by paying more into our savings + taxes while we are working or by working for longer.
Housing policy may need to change to encourage older people to ‘trade down’ into smaller accommodation. this would release wealth to improve their standard of living and free up housing for younger people.
These policy changes will require a cultural change in our attitudes to old age. HIRSCH argues that old age is a social construct - it’s something that is shaped and defined by society.

Question 28

What effect has the ageing population had on public services?

Answer 28

older people consume a larger proportion of services such as health/social care than other age groups. however, this could be an over-generalisation - many old people remain in relatively good health well into old age.
an ageing population may also mean there are changes to policies + provision of housing, transport, + other services.

Question 29

What changes in the family structure has the ageing population made?

Answer 29

There is an increase in extended families due to increased life expectancy. with people living longer there are increases in multi-generational + beanpole families.

Question 30

How has the ageing population impacted single person pensioner households?

Answer 30

the number of pensioners living alone has increased and single-person pensioner households now account for 1/8 of all households. most of these are female, both because women generally live longer than men

Question 31

What are the trends immigration?

Answer 31

From 1900 to the Second World War the largest immigrant group to the UK were the Irish, mainly for economic reasons; followed by Eastern and Central European Jews, who were often refugees fleeing persecution and people of British descent from Canada and the US. Few immigrants were non-white.
However, by the 1950s, black immigrants from the Caribbean began to settle in the UK; followed by South Asian immigrants from India, Pakistan, Bangladeshi and Sri Lanka and by East African Asians from Kenya and Uganda during the 1960s and 1970s.
As a consequence, the UK has become a much more ethnically diverse society. By 2011 minority ethnic groups accounted for 12.1% of the total population, and this has contributed greatly to the diversity of family patterns found in contemporary Britain.

Question 32

What are the trends in Emigration?

Answer 32

From as early as the mid-16th century until the 1980s, the UK has almost always been a net exporter of people: more people emigrate than have come to settle. Since 1900, the great majority of emigrants have gone to the US and the old Commonwealth countries (Canada, Australia and New Zealand) and South Africa.
The main reasons have been economic, both in terms of ‘push’ factors such as economic recession and unemployment at home and ‘pull’ factors such as high wages or better opportunities abroad. Earlier in the century, there were often labour shortages in these countries. These economic reasons contrast with other groups who have been driven to migration by religious, political or racial persecution.

Question 33

What was the Impact of Migration on the UK Population Structure?

Answer 33

• population size has increased. the key reason for this increase was the expansion of the European Union in 2004 to including ten new member states, mostly in Eastern Europe, giving their citizens the right to live and work in the UK.
• Age structure: both immigrants and emigrants are generally young and slightly more likely to be male than female. Immigrants are generally younger. Being younger, immigrants are more fertile and thus produce more babies. However, a significant number of emigrants are older, with 40% moving to EU countries such as Spain to retire.
• Dependency ratio: On one hand migrants are mainly of working age and this reduces dependency, however immigrant women tend to have higher fertility rates. In the short term, this contributes to a higher dependency, but in the long term produces more workers, helping to reduce the ratio once again. The longer a group is settled in the country, the closer their fertility rate comes to the national average, reducing their overall impact on the dependency ratio.
• As a result of internal migration during the industrial revolution of the 19th century there was a population shift from the largely agricultural South to the industrial North for jobs in mining, shipbuilding, steel, iron, textiles etc. In 1851 Britain was the first country to see more than half of its population living in towns and cities. However, during the 20th century as these industries declined and gave way to newer ones (cars, chemicals, electrical engineering etc.) developing in the South and Midlands there began a population shift in the opposite direction in search of job opportunities. More recently, London and the South East have exerted an important pull because of the growth in the finance and service industries located there. A corresponding trend has been suburbanisation with the growth of large residential areas surrounding the major cities and more recently still, there has been a reversal of the outflow of population from inner city areas.

Question 34

What is Globalisation?

Answer 34

Globalisation is the idea that barriers between societies are disappearing and people are becoming increasingly interconnected across national boundaries. It is the result of many combined processes, including the growth of communication systems and global media, the creation of global markets, the fall of communism in Eastern Europe and the expansion of the European Union. Many see globalisation as producing rapid social changes. One major social change resulting from globalisation is international migration.

Question 35

What are the trends in Global migration?

Answer 35

• There has been a speeding up of the rate of migration.
• Globalisation is increasing the diversity of types of migrants. There are many types of migrant including permanent settlers, temporary workers, spouses and forced migrants such as refugees and asylum seekers. Some may have legal entitlement, while others enter without permission.
  since the 1990s globalisation has led to what VERTOVEC calls ‘Super diversity’.
  Migrants now come from a much wider range of countries.

Question 36

What are the 3 types of migrant that reflect class differences among migrants? (Cohen)

Answer 36

Identifies three types of migrant:
Citizens: full citizenship rights (voting rights + access to benefits)
Denizens: privileged foreign nationals welcomed by the state.
Helots: the most exploited group. states + employers regard them as ‘disposable units of labour power’.

Question 37

Explain the feminisation of migration:

Question 38

How has global migration impacted families, households and wider society?

Answer 38

Family and Household Diversity: Global migration means there is an increase in the range of families and households linked to ethnic differences: Black families are more likely to be headed up by a lone female; Asian families are likely to be larger; with the increase in women there will be less households that just have male migrants.

Population Size: The key reason for this increase was the expansion of the European Union in 2004 to including ten new member states, mostly in Eastern Europe, giving their citizens the right to live and work in the UK.

Age Structure: Both immigrants and emigrants are generally young and slightly more likely to be male than female. Immigrants are generally younger. Being younger, immigrants are more fertile and thus produce more babies. However, a significant number of emigrants are older, with 40% moving to EU countries such as Spain to retire.

The Dependency Ratio: On one hand migrants are mainly of working age and this reduces dependency, however immigrant women tend to have higher fertility rates. In the short term, this contributes to a higher dependency, but in the long term produces more workers, helping to reduce the ratio once again. The longer a group is settled in the country, the closer their fertility rate comes to the national average, reducing their overall impact on the dependency ratio.

Question 39

What are Migrant Identities?

Answer 39

We all have multiple sources of identity: family, friends, neighbourhood, ethnicity, religion, nationality etc. and they give us a sense of belonging and of who we are.

For migrants and their descendants, their country of origin may provide an additional or alternative source of identity. Reflecting this, migrants may develop hybrid identities; identities made up of two or more different sources. Eade (1994) found that second generation Bangladeshi Muslims in Britain created hierarchical identities: they saw themselves as Muslim first, then Bengali, then British. Those with hybrid identities may find that others challenge their identity claims or accuse them of not fitting in.

Question 40

What are transnational identities?

Answer 40

According to Eriksen (2007), globalisation has created more diverse migration patterns, with back-and-forth movements of people through networks rather than permanent settlement in another country. As a result, migrants are less likely to see themselves as belonging completely to one culture or country. Instead, they may develop transnational ‘neither/nor’ identities and loyalties. Modern technology also makes it possible to sustain global ties without having to travel. The globalised economy means that migrants may have more links to other migrants around the world than to either their country of origin or of settlement. For example, Eriksen describes Chinese migrants in Rome who found Mandarin more useful for everyday life than Italian – simply because Mandarin was important for their global connections with Chinese individuals in other countries around the world. Migrants in a globalised world are thus less likely to desire assimilation into the host culture.

Question 41

explain the two migration policies:

Answer 41

Assimilationism: was the first state policy approach to immigration. It aimed to encourage immigrants to adopt the language, values and customs of the host culture to make them ‘like us’. However, assimilation policies face the problem that transnational migrants with hybrid identities may not be willing to abandon their culture or to see themselves as belonging to just one nation-state.

· Multiculturalism: accepts that migrants may wish to retain a separate cultural identity. However, in practice, this acceptance may be limited to more superficial aspects of cultural diversity. For example, Eriksen distinguishes between shallow diversity: such as regarding chicken tikka masala as Britain’s national dish, is acceptable to the state and deep diversity: such as arranged marriages or the veiling of women, is not acceptable to the state. From the 1960s there was a move towards multiculturalism but since the ‘9/11’ Islamist terrorist attack in 2001, many politicians have swung back towards demanding that migrants assimilate culturally. For example, in France, veiling of the face in public was made illegal in 2010.

Question 42

Evaluation of assimilationist policies:

Answer 42

Argues that assimilationist policies are counter-productive because they mark out minority groups are culturally backward or ‘other’. This can be lead to minorities as emphasising their differences. This increases the hosts’ suspicion of them as the ‘enemy within’ and may promote anti-terrorism policies that target them. This breeds further marginalisation, defeating the goal of assimilation.