Topic 10

Question 1

What is a prokaryote?

Answer 1

Earth’s initial life forms were prokaryotes, with the Archaea and Bacteria domains evolving as distinct branches.

• both domains inherited a simple prokaryotic cell organization from a common ancestor

Question 2

How do prokaryotic cells differ from eukaryotic cells?

Answer 2

• Prokaryotes are characterized by their small size and unicellularity, eukaryotic cells are typically larger
• prokaryote cells’ compact size supports high rates of metabolism due to shorter diffusional distances
• Prokaryotic cells exhibit a variety of shapes, and lack membrane-bound organelles, and a nucleus.

Question 3

How do cell-surface structures contribute to the success of prokaryotes?

Answer 3

• The cell wall provides structural support and protection

Question 4

What is peptidoglycan?

Answer 4

Contained in bacterial cell walls, it is a network of sugar polymers cross-linked by short peptides.

Question 5

What are eukaryotic cells made out of?

Answer 5

Cellulose (plants) or chitin (fungi)

Question 6

What is a gram-stain in a cell-surface structure?

Answer 6

Gram stain provides a quick and effective way of distinguishing bacteria based of their cell wall characteristics.

Question 7

What is gram positive and gram negative bacteria?

Answer 7

• gram positive bacteria exhibit simple cell walls characterized by a significant presence of external facing peptidoglycan.
• the thick layer of peptidoglycan contributes to the retention of the crystal violet stain during gram staining.
• gram negative bacteria have thinner layers of peptidoglycan and an additional outer lipopolysaccharide membrane that influences the staining process.
• lipopolysaccharide adds complexity to the cell structure and serves as a protective barrier.

Question 8

What is a capsule in a cell-surface structure?

Answer 8

A sticky polysaccharide protein layer that many prokaryotes are surrounded by.

• capsules adhere cells to one another and surfaces and retain water, protecting other cells from desiccation.
• capsules form biofilms, communities of cells in a slimy extracellular matrix (dental plaque).

Question 9

What are fimbraie? What are pilli?

Answer 9

• fimbraie are hair like appendages that facilitate cell adhesion to substrates, or other cells within a colony
• pilli are distinct from fimbraie, they are longer structures that play a role in the exchange of DNA between prokaryotic cells.

Question 10

How do endospores contribute to the success of prokaryotes?

Answer 10

Some prokaryotes can produce metabolically inactive endospores, which can endure harsh conditions for extended periods (decades to sometimes centuries).

Question 11

What are endospores? How do they help prokaryotes?

Answer 11

Compact, rounded, dormant cells that develop within prokaryotes when environmental conditions become unfavourable.

• endospore formation is triggered by various environmental stressors, and possess a tough protective coat that can resist UV light, chemicals, heat, high salt concentrations, and extreme pH levels.
• endospores remain dormant until environmental conditions become conductive to growth.

Question 12

What is motility in the success of prokaryotes? How do they move?

Answer 12

Approximately half of all prokaryotes possess the ability to move actively (motile).

• Prokaryotes typically move using the flagella, which are whip-like appendages either distributed across the cell surface of concentrated at one or both ends of the cell.
• the flagella is constructed from distinct proteins in bacteria and archaea, suggesting independent evolutionary origins.

Question 13

What are taxes in the motility of prokaryotes?

Answer 13

The ability to move in response to a specific stimulus (singular = taxis)

• moving toward or away from a stimulus (ex. positive phototaxis is the movement towards light).

Question 14

How does the simple internal organization and DNA contribute to the success of prokaryotes?

Answer 14

• Prokaryotic cells are characterized by their straightforward internal structure without complex compartmentalization.
• Prokaryotes lack membrane-enclosed organelles, including a distinct nucleus, mitochondria, or chloroplasts
• prokaryotes have small genomes consisting of a single circular chromosome

Question 15

What are plasmids?

Answer 15

Smaller circular DNA molecules that only some species of bacteria have.

• they are compact rings of DNA containing a limited number of extra genes, providing prokaryotes with additional genetic versatility.

Question 16

How does reproduction contribute to the success of prokaryotes?

Answer 16

• prokaryotes are able to reproduce quickly by binary fission, they can divide every 1-3 hours and the speed is dependent on the environment.
• binary fission is asexual reproduction because prokaryotes are unicellular. It creates genetically identical copies of cells.

Question 17

What are the three factors that contribute to genetic diversity?

Answer 17

1. rapid reproduction
2. mutations
3. genetic recombination

Question 18

What are mutations in prokaryote genetic variation?

Answer 18

• mutation rates during binary fission are low, but because of how quick binary fission is, mutations can rapidly accumulate within a population overtime.

Question 19

What is genetic recombination in genetic variation?

Answer 19

• genetic recombination is a process where prokaryotic genetic material is exchanged between individual cells.
• this contributes to prokaryote genetic diversity.

Question 20

What is horizontal gene transfer?

Answer 20

When genetic recombination occurs between individuals from different species.

Question 21

What are the three mechanisms of genetic recombination?

Answer 21

transformation, transduction, and conjugation.

Question 22

What is transformation in prokaryote genetic recombination?

Answer 22

Involves the absorption and integration of external DNA from the surrounding environment.

• this includes the uptake of DNA fragments or plastids often released from dead bacteria.

Question 23

What is transduction in prokaryote genetic recombination?

Answer 23

The transfer of DNA segments between bacteria by bacteriophages.

bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria.

Question 24

What is conjugation in prokaryote genetic recombination?

Answer 24

occurs when genetic material is exchanged between prokaryotic cells through direct physical contact

• the transfer of genetic material is unidirectional, it occurs only from the pilus-producing donor to the recipient.
• Plasmids are often transferred during conjugation

Question 25

What is metabolism?

Answer 25

The chemical pathways used by living organisms to build up molecules (anabolism) or break down molecules to release energy (catabolism).

• prokaryotes are notable for their remarkable metabolic diversity.

Question 26

What are the two ways that prokaryotes can obtain their source of energy?

Answer 26

1. Obtain energy from light (phototrophs)
2. Obtain energy from chemicals (chemotrophs)

Question 27

What are the two ways that prokaryotes can obtain their source of carbon?

Answer 27

1. Using simple inorganic molecules (CO2) as carbon sources to produce complex organic compounds. (Autotrophs. auto = self).
2. The need for organic substrates to obtain carbon for growth and development. (Heterotrophs. hetero = other).

Question 28

What are the four major modes of nutrition for prokaryotes?

Answer 28

1. Photoautotrophy
2. Chemoautotrophy
3. Photoheterotrophy
4. Chemoheterotrophy

Question 29

What are obligate aerobes & obligate anaerobes? Facultative anaerobes?

Answer 29

• obligate aerobes depend on oxygen for cellular respiration
• obligate anaerobes are inhibited by oxygen, and resort to fermentation or anaerobic respiration for energy production
• facultative anaerobes can survive in the presence or absence of O2.

Question 30

What is biological nitrogen fixation?

Answer 30

Converting atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3). This process contributes significantly to the nitrogen cycle.

• certain prokaryotes including some bacteria and methanogens (Archaea) play a crucial role in this process.

Question 31

What are the two distinct lineages of prokaryotes?

Answer 31

1. Domain Bacteria
2. Domain Archaea

Question 32

What are domain bacteria?

Answer 32

Bacteria include the majority of well-known prokaryotic species.

• there are five major bacterial groups
• Bacteria exhibit incredible abundance, can live in almost all habitats, and contribute to about 50% of all human disease.

Question 33

What is Proteobacteria?

Answer 33

A major bacterial group that constitute a vast ad metabolically diverse group of gram-negative bacteria.

• 5 sub-lineages. Alpha to Epsilon.

Question 34

What are Chlamydias?

Answer 34

A major bacterial group that obligate intacellular parasites that exclusively inhabit animal cells.

• they are entirely dependent on a host cell for their survival and reproduction

Question 35

What is Cyanobacteria?

Answer 35

A major bacterial group that are the only prokaryotes that generate oxygen through photoautotrophy (like plants).

• chloroplasts of eukaryotes are hypothesized to have evolved from cyanobacteria through endosymbiosis.

Question 36

What is gram-positive bacteria?

Answer 36

A major bacterial group that are very diverse, known for their positive staining response to the Gram stain.

• the group also includes gram-negative taxa.

Question 37

What are domain archaea?

Answer 37

Archaea (meaning ancient or original) exhibit characteristics common to both bacteria and eukaryotes

• archaea and bacteria share a simple prokaryotic cell organization inherited from a common ancestor
• archaea cell walls lack peptidoglycan, making them unresponsive to antibiotics that typically inhibit bacterial growth.

Question 38

What ae methanogens?

Answer 38

a type of domain archaea that thrive in anoxic (low oxygen) habitats such as swamps, marshes, and digestive tracts of animals like cattle and humans.

• they are poisoned by oxygen, and produce methane as a waste metabolite.

Question 39

What are extreme halophiles & extreme thermophiles?

Answer 39

• extreme halophiles are fund in highly saline environments (halo = salt)
• extreme thermophiles thrive in very hot environments (therm = heat).

Question 40

What crucial roles to prokaryotes play in the biosphere?

Answer 40

• prokaryotes are crucial contributors to oxygen production and nitrogen fixation
• play a major role in the recycling of chemical elements within ecosystems
• chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes function as decomposers, breaking down deceased organisms and waste products

Question 41

What is symbosis?

Answer 41

A close, long-term ecological relationship between two species, where at least one species benefits.

• prokaryotes frequently form symbiotic relationships
• symbiosis typically involve a larger host and a smaller symbiont.

Question 42

What is mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism symbiosis?

Answer 42

• Mutualism is a relationship where both species benefit.
• commensalism is a relationship where one species benefits and the other species is unaffected.
• parasitism is a relationship where one species (parasite) benefits at the expense of the other species (host). Although the host is not necessarily killed.