Topic 1: Theories of Religion

Question 1

Defining Religion

Answer 1

It is important, as definition adopted will decide what should be examined as a religious phenomenon and what should not

Question 2

What does Berger state?

Answer 2

Religion can be:
‘Monotheistic’
‘Polytheistic’
Spiritual without a belief in god
A supernatural belief but no concept of god

Question 3

What is Religion?

Answer 3

Nature of beliefs has varied so widely that it is very difficult to identify common factors that allow for simple definitions
Sociological definitions can be divided into 3 broad categories
1. Substantive Definitions
2. Functional Definitions
3. Polythetic Definitions

Question 4

What are Substantive Definitions?

Answer 4

Focus on the content or substance of religious belief
- Tylor 1903 ‘belief in spiritual beings’
A good definition:
Bruce 1995- ‘beliefs actions and institutions which assume the existence of supernatural entities with power of action’
Berfer 1990- ‘Sacred canopy’- supernatural protections
This was criticised for ignoring religious practices

Question 5

Evaluations of Substantive Definitions

Answer 5

+ Widely accepted- conform to a widespread view of religion as belief in god
- leave no room for beliefs and practices that do not involve belief in god/gods
- The definition provides a very broad understanding of religion
- Western bias, excludes non God religion

Question 6

What are functional definitions

Answer 6

-Religion does something and it benefits society- focuses on the function of beliefs in society
- Assumption: religion is a product of society
- Contribution to society- binding through shared values
Yinger 1970
‘Religion is a system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people struggle with the ultimate problems of human life’

Question 7

Evaluation of Functional Defintions

Answer 7

+There is no bias against non-western religions such as Buddhism as no direct mention of ‘God’- inclusive
-Broad- anti religious systems that contribute to understanding society (marxism)
^^ Scharf ‘civil religion’ used to describe these types of belief systems (non-religious)
- Assumption: religion is useful and functional

Question 8

What is the Polythetic definition

Answer 8

This approach identifies a number of overlapping factors that most religions share
To qualify as a religion, a self of beliefs needs to exhibit a number of these factors but not necessarily all of them!

Question 9

Problems with the Polythetic definition

Answer 9

it is not clear how many of the factors need to be shared in order for something to be considered a religion
Decisions of what to include in the list itsefl is a matter of judgement- who decides

Question 10

What are 5 accepted features of religion

Answer 10

1- Beliefs- in the supernatural or in symbols which are regarded as sacred
2. Theology- a set of teaching and beliefs- holy book
3. Practice- rituals and ceremonies
4. Institutions- organisation of worshipers, priests or religious leaders
5. Consequences- moral or ethical values to influence everyday behaviours

Question 11

How do Functionalists define belief systems

Answer 11

They define it in terms of the social or psychological functions it performs for individuals or society
For functionalists, society is a system of interrelated parts or social institutions

Question 12

What does Durkheim say about Belief systems- The Sacred and the Profane

Answer 12

He believed the key feature of religion was a fundamental distinction between the sacred and the profane found in all religions
- The sacred are things set apart and forbidden, that inspire feelings of awe, fear and wonder and are surrounded by taboos and prohibitions
- The profane are things that have no special significance- things that are ordinary and mundane

Question 13

What does Durkheim say about Belief systems- Totemism

Answer 13

Durkheim believed that the essence of all religion could be found by studying its simplest form, in the simplest type of society- Clan Society
He uses Arunta in studies- is a tribe with a clan system
- Arunta tribe worships their sacred totem together which is the clan’s emblem- when they worship the emblem, they are in reality worshipping society

Question 14

What does Durkheim say about Belief systems- The Collective Conscience

Answer 14

• The sacred symbols represent society’s collective conscience or consciousness
• This is the shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge that make social life and cooperation between individuals possible- without would disintegrate
• Regular shared religious rituals reinforce the collective conscience and maintain social integration
• Religion also performs an important function for the individual

Question 15

Criticisms of Durkheim’s view (AO3)

Answer 15

Evidence for totemism is unsound as there is no sharp division between the sacred the profane- different clans share the same totems
Durkheim’s theory may apply better to small-scale societies with a single religion
His theory may explain social integration within communities, but not the conflicts between them
- Postmodernists argue that Durkheim’s ideas cannot be applied to contemporary society, because increasing diversity has fragmented the collective conscience, so there is no longer a single shared value system for religion to reinforce

Question 16

How does Malinowski explain the psychological functions

Answer 16

Religion helps people to cope with emotional stress which could undermine social solidarity

Question 17

What are the 2 types of situation where religion would perform this role:

Answer 17

1. where the outcome is important but is uncontrollable and uncertain. e.g. in the Trioband tribe lagoon fishing is not seen as dangerous or uncertain so requires no ritual, however ocean fishing is both dangerous and uncertain so ‘canoe magic’ rituals are performed before setting out
2. At times of life crisis- major life events such as birth, death, marriage and puberty can be a cause of major disruption and religion serves to minimise that disruption, through the use of rituals. E.g. funerals reinforce solidarity amongst the survivors and gives comfort to the bereaved

Question 18

What did Parsons think of beliefs systems

Answer 18

Religion helps people to cope with unforeseen situations and uncontrollable outcomes

Question 19

What are the 2 essential functions that Parsons identifies that religion performs in modern society:

Answer 19

1. It creates and legitimates societies central values by sacralising them which serves to promote a value consensus
2. It is a primary source of meaning by trying to answer the ultimate questions about the human conditions such as why people suffer and the good die young. Which enables people to make sense of these vents and helps society maintain stability

Question 20

How does Marxism respond to Religion

Answer 20

‘Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the sentiment of a heartless world… the soul of soulless conditions. it is the opium of the people’ (Marc 1844)
- Conservative force
- Not beneficial to society
- Ideological apparatus

Question 21

How does Marx show that religion is acting like an Opium

Answer 21

Religion eases the pain and oppression in 3 ways:
1- dulls the pain of exploitation rather than dealing with the cause of the exploitation just like opium dulls the pain of an injury rather than healing the injury itself
2- Eventual Escape- religion gives a distorted world view, it can offer no solutions to earthly misery but can offer the promise of an afterlife. Just as Opium can create hallucinations and distort the takers perspectives
3- The temporary high that the followers feelings whilst taking part in the rituals mimics the temporary high achieved by taking opium

Question 22

Power of the ruling class

Answer 22

Ruling class legitimises their power (social control)
- ‘God-Given’
- Inevitable
The inequality between rich and poor cannot be questioned as it would be questioned god
AO2- The ‘Divine Right of kings’

Question 23

Who is a supporter of the Marxist view

Answer 23

Halevy 1927
- argued that the methodist religion played a key role in preventing a WC revolution in the 19th century
- Most other european nations experienced some attempt to bring about social change in this period, but not Britain
- Halvey argued that WC dissatisfaction in Britain was instead expressed by deserting the Church of England for methodism- distracted from their class grievances and encouraged to see enlightenment in spirituality
- this inhibited social change

Question 24

Religion in America

Answer 24

Religion is used to support dominant groups in America
Fundamentalist religions support conservative views
Fundamentalists often suggest that wealth and prosperity are a sign of God’s favour while poverty, illness and homosexuality are indicators of sins- Traditional values

Question 25

What is other supporting evidence

Answer 25

Leach 1988
- Critical of the Church of England as it recruits from upper class base (80% Bishops privately educated)- lost connect- maintain unequal power (social control)

Hook 1990
- The vatican’s stance on contraception causing problems in less developed countries - South America Conservative

Question 26

Criticisms of Marxism

Answer 26

• Like functionalism the Marxist theory fails to consider secularisation- fewer than 10% of people attend church
• Marx failed to explain the existence of religion where it does not appear to contribute to the oppression of a particular class
• There are some examples of religious movements that have brought about radical social change and helped remove ruling elites - Martin Luther King
• Neo-Marxist have recognised the way in which religion is sometimes used as the only means to oppose the ruling class- e.g. Churches as safe houses (immigration)

Question 27

What is interactionism’s views on beliefs

Answer 27

They look at how the religion is used by follower to create meanings and interpretations of the world and to understand the meanings of sacred symbols- Shroud of Turin

Question 28

What did Berger say about beliefs

Answer 28

• Religion provides a ‘Universe of meaning’ as there is a set of beliefs to make sense of the world.
• Gives individuals a sense of meaning and explanation in a chaotic world
• Religion provides a theodicy- religious framework that enables people to make sense of seemingly inexplicable things
• Berger sees religion as a ‘Sacred canopy’ stretching over society and providing a shield that protects from uncertainties, by helping people interpret the world
• interpretivists are therefore arguing that religion contributes to the maintenance of social stability and is a conservative force.

Question 29

Does religion still provide a universe of meaning

Answer 29

• Reason, logic and science have largely replaced faith
• Growing secularisation
• Media saturated, globalised postmodern world- diversity and fragmentation

Question 30

Religion as a compensator

Answer 30

Stark and Bainbridge 1996
- religion meets the needs of individuals when their sense of social order is disrupted- belief in god/religion provides a means for individuals to make sense of and come to terms with events
- religion also helps to answer fundamental questions

Question 31

Feminist Views on Religion

Answer 31

Religious institutions are patriarchal and serve the interests of men
- religious belief reflect patriarchal ideology which in turn justifies, legitimises and reproduces male dominance

Question 32

Feminism on religion being a conservative force

Answer 32

this is achieved by:
1. subordinate roles of women in scriptures/ texts/ organisations
2. Marginalisation of women, e.g. exclusion from or restricted access to buildings
3. Patriarchal doctrines with traditional gender roles
4. Religious laws and customs

Question 33

AO2 Examples

Answer 33

1. Women are presented as temptresses who distract men from the serious business of worship
2. women are given the role of nurturing in a range of religions
3. religious texts are full of male Gods, male prophets, male saints and heroes
4. Rules of religious organisations- restrict freedom of women
5. In several religious organisations, men and women worship separately.

Question 34

Liberation Theology- Neo Marxists

Answer 34

It is a movement that emerged within the catholic church in Latin America at the end of the 1960s, with a strong military commitment to the poor and opposition to military dictatorships

Question 35

Factors that led to liberation theology were:

Answer 35

• Deepening rural poverty and the growth of urban slums throughout latin america
• human rights abuses following military take-overs, such as torture and death squads, murdering political opponents
• The growing commitment among catholic priests to an ideology that supported the poor and opposed violations of human rights

Question 36

Calvinism

Answer 36

Predestination:
- Total depravity
- Unconditioned election
-Limited atonement
- Irresistible grace
- Perseverance of the saints

Calvin preached that God had already decided who would enter the Kingdom of Heaven before you are born and that his decision is final and unchangeable.
those who are chosen are known as the ‘elect’

Question 37

Divine Transcendence

Answer 37

No individual would have the power to rival God and be able to predict his wishes.
The only source of information is the bible itself even the priests in the Calvinist faith could not predict God’s will

Question 38

Vocation or Calling

Answer 38

Calvinists believe that the only way to glorify God was to devote themselves to their work
Although this would influence God’s decision or their experience in the afterlife, their devotion to hard work would honour him

Question 39

Calvinism led to capitalism because:

Answer 39

• Calvinists become anxious about being part of the elect so to overcome this anxiety they devote themselves to this work, often acquiring vast amounts of wealth in the process
• Calvinists take this wealth as a sign of God’s favour, which COULD mean they are part of the elect
• Calvinists do not believe in squandering or spending their wealth instead they reinvest it into their businesses helping them to grow
• Weber believe that calvinists believe that led to the emergence of the spirit of capitalism in which the pursuit of profit was seen as a spiritual god

Question 40

Evaluation

Answer 40

Kautsky disagrees with Weber’s analysis of the role Calvinism played in the development of capitalism
Kautsky’s opinion modern capitalism already existed prior to the development of Calvinism
Therefore the only purpose of Calvinism was to justify the reasons why the ruling class controlled the means of production and thus continue the myth of divine inequality

Question 41

What is secularisation?

Answer 41

The process whereby religious beliefs, practices and institutions lose social significance

Question 42

What is the substantive definition of religion

Answer 42

A belief in the supernatural force
Wilson- substantive definition= secularisation
- people accept other more rational explanation of the world
STRENGTHS:
- Conforms to widespread view of religion as a belief in god
LIMITATIONS:
- defining religion in this way leaves us no room for beliefs and practices that perform similar functions to religion but do not involves belief in God
- can be accused of Western bias because they exclude religion such as Buddhism, which do not have the western idea of God.

Question 43

What is the functional definitions of religion?

Answer 43

Religion can be defined merely in terms of its societal effect
Wilson- functional definition= reject secularisation
-religion still exists… perhaps in different forms to traditional religions
STRENGTHS:
- It is an inclusive definition allowing us to include a wide range of beliefs and practices that perform functions such as integration
- No bias against non-western religions
LIMITATIONS:
- just because an institution helps integrate individuals into groups, this does not make it into a religion

Question 44

Measuring Secularisation

Answer 44

Church attendance
- declining church attendance= common indicator
Sunday church attendance has halved

Question 45

What is a denomination?

Answer 45

A form organisation with a hierarchy of paid officials but as an organisation it is smaller than a church

Question 46

What is a cult?

Answer 46

Decried to possess belief systems that do not usually involve a God or Gods and often will tolerate and accept alternative belief systems

Question 47

Reasons for the spread of NRMs

Answer 47

1. Existence of spiritual needs
   - NRMs indicate that there are spiritual needs which habve not been identified, or what the church and other religious institutions have either not perceived or not succeeded in meeting
2. Cultural Identity search
   - NRMs can arise or attract because people are searching for meaning when they are feeling lost in a period of cultural change
3. Filling a void
   - many christians join NRMs because they find that in them there is an answer to their religious thirst with clear answers
4. Seeking answers to vital questions
   - Some people seek religion to answer failure, suffering, sickness and death
5. Cashing in on our pastoral weak points
   - there are some weak points in the pastoral ministry and the life of christian communities which the NRMs exploit
   - Priests are often scarce and NRMs often have numerous forceful leaders
   - Large parishes which are often impersonal are replaced by small communities where people feel they belong and are known
6. Independence
   - NRMs offer young people an opportunity to show their independence , to challenge the view of their parents and to assert their own personalities, values and beliefs
7. Answering Needs
   - NRMs may answer the needs of people who are lonely or confused
   - joining a groups with a clear set of beliefs and direction may provide a sense of stability in an individual’s life and being a sense of purpose
8. Making a contribution
   - for some, joining a NRM may represent a way of making a contribution to society or even of changing society

Question 48

Problems of NRMs

Answer 48

• Unity of the church- NRMs draw Christians away from the unity and community of the church
• Undermining and denial of the faith- some NRMs undermined major views of the church and often deny them
• Abandonment of the faith- in many cases, Christians are led to abandon their faith through the activities of NRMs
• Psychological harm- there are some NRMs which have done psychological harm to individuals through their methods of recruitment and training and through the harsh measures they adopt to prevent their members from leaving
• Relationship with society- some NRMs have created problems for society because they fail to teach their members to be concerned citizens of society