topic 1 the early years

Question 1

The native people of Britain were Celts who were part of a larger Celtic population in where?

Answer 1

Gaul-present day France and Belgium

Question 2

How was Britain organised?

Answer 2

Into over 20 different tribes each with their own ruler

Question 3

What houses did the Celts live in?

Answer 3

They lived in round houses with one single, circular room. The walls were made of wattle (woven branches) and daub (clay and mud cement)

Question 4

Most Iron age settlements were singular farmsteads however, some hill forts have been found to include several hundred people. What is an example of a hill fort?

Answer 4

Maiden Castle in Dorset

Question 5

Why were the Celts good farmers?

Answer 5

They had iron ploughs so they could turn heavy soils

Question 6

What did the Celts grow/keep and what were these for?

Answer 6

Wheat, oats, rye
Barley for brewing as beer was the staple drink
Rape for oil
Hemp for fibre
Flax for linen
A variety of vegetables-peas, beans, lentils and vetch (for fodder)
Cattle, pigs and small goat-like sheep were kept for food, milk and leather and the sheep had coarse wool

Question 7

What did the spinners and weavers make?

Answer 7

Woollen cloaks of such quality and colour they became famous across the Roman world

Question 8

Why did the Celts coppice trees

Answer 8

They cut the timber for fencing, building and fuel

Question 9

How do we know the Celts were such good boat builders?

Answer 9

The Romans used the skills of the Celtic people they had already conquered in Gaul to build the transport for the fleets that invaded Britain.

Question 10

What did the metal workers make?

Answer 10

Iron weapons like helmets and long swords but also decorative jewellery such as gold and silver torcs, or neck rings.

Question 11

The Celts had at least 400 gods and goddesses-many were probably the same spirit but with different local names. Where did they live?

Answer 11

They ‘lived’ in oak groves, rivers, lakes and other natural places. Ritual and magic linked the people to their nature-gods

Question 12

What did the Celts gods demand and how was this communicated to the people?

Answer 12

Their gods spoke to the tribal priests or Druids and made known to them their voracious appetite for sacrifice - of animals, precious objects and humans – without which there would be no health, wealth, happiness, fertility or victory in battle

Question 13

Who were the Druids recruited from?

Answer 13

Recruited almost exclusively from the nobility, the Druids were an aloof caste, guarding their rites in secrecy, to keep their hold on oral tribal lore. It took 20 years to become a Druid, committing generations-worth of knowledge to memory

Question 14

Why did Julius Caesar launch an expedition to Britain?

Answer 14

 The prime one was political: his reputation was built on his military skill, and an easy conquest would be another feather in his cap, a good career move for an ambitious politician set on achieving power in Rome.
 There were also arguable military reasons: British Celts had provided military help to the Celts in Gaul.
 There were also potential economic gains: Britain’s mineral wealth was an attraction, and its farmers grew good corn, which could help to feed the empire.

Question 15

When were Caesar’s two expeditions and what were they?

Answer 15

Caesar’s two expeditions to Britain (55BC and 54BC) were little more than raids. The Roman army gained useful intelligence about Britain, and Caesar won his triumph.

Question 16

What happened in the following decades after Caesar’s expeditions?

Answer 16

In the following decades trade grew between Britain and the Roman world. Some British rulers took to stamping rex on their coins.

Question 17

Who was the most powerful British ruler from AD 10 and what happened to his son, Adminius?

Answer 17

From about AD10, Cunobelinus of the Catuvellauni was the most powerful of British rulers. His capital was Camulodunum (Colchester). He quarrelled with one of his sons, Adminius, who fled to Caligula in Rome in AD39, wanting the emperor to invade Britain. A force was assembled although it never sailed.

Question 18

When did Cunobelinus die and who did he leave in charge?

Answer 18

Cunobelinus died in 42AD, and his other two sons, Caratacus and Togodumnus, took control.

Question 19

How did Togodumnus and Caratacus treat the Roman emperor and those who supported him in Britain?

Answer 19

They showed no deference to the Roman emperor (Claudius, since AD41) and seized lands from tribes friendly to Rome. Claudius needed British allies to help trade flourish. King Verica of the Atrebates, forced out by Cunobelinus, begged Rome’s help in seeking vengeance.

Question 20

Why did the Emperor Claudius invade Britain in AD 43?

Answer 20

1 In the year AD41 the Emperor Caligula was assassinated and his uncle Claudius found himself on the imperial throne. He was in a weak position and needed a military victory to prove himself and consolidate his power.
2 King Verica of the Atrebates, forced out by Caratacus, begged Rome’s help in seeking vengeance.
3 There were economic considerations: Britain could offer lead, tin, gold, pearls, cloth, hunting dogs, corn and slaves to add to the wealth of the Roman Empire.

Question 21

Which legions did Claudius order to invade?

Answer 21

The IInd Augusta, XIVth Gemina, XXth Valeria and IXth Hispana - and a large force of auxiliaries, led by Aulus Plautius, to attack Britain.

Question 22

Why did the invasion not get off to a good start despite the experience and success of the leader, Aulus Plautius?

Answer 22

The troops had no wish to embark on a hazardous trip across the Channel to a place that they saw as the edge of the world. They threatened mutiny when ordered to Britain

Question 23

What happened when a senior official tried to speak to the troops at Gaul?

Answer 23

At first this made matters worse, as Narcissus was a former slave and the legionaries were incensed at the idea of an ex-slave telling them what to do. The mood changed when some began to chant, as a joke, the traditional cry of ‘Io Saturnalia!’ used on the feast of Saturnalia, the one day of the year when slaves were allowed to give orders to their masters.

Question 24

How had Caesar’s accounts of his expeditions helped Aulus Plautius?

Answer 24

He took far more cavalry with him because he knew the danger of the British chariots. To overcome the dangers of landing from the sea, Plautius crossed the Channel in three divisions, landing one force at Richborough, the others probably at Dover and Lympne, hoping to confuse the Britons about the place where the main attack would fall.

Question 25

Why was it not necessary to cross the Channel in 3 divisions?

Answer 25

The Britons, having heard news of the mutiny, were not expecting an attack

Question 26

Where did Plautius land and what did he do there?

Answer 26

Plautius landed safely, built a camp at Richborough, where there was a large harbour for his ships to anchor with no danger from storms, and then set out to find the enemy.

Question 27

Where did the Romans march through and what happened?

Answer 27

The Romans marched through Kent and, after some preliminary skirmishes, defeated a British force, led by Caratacus, at a major battle, probably at the River Medway. They then marched on to the River Thames.

Question 28

What happened after they had crossed the Thames?

Answer 28

The way was clear for an attack on the stronghold of Camulodunum (Colchester), which was seen as the enemy capital. However, the army halted for perhaps six weeks.

Question 29

Why did the troops wait for 6 weeks?

Answer 29

Plautius possibly needed time to rest and regroup but he was also obeying imperial command. Claudius wanted his share of the glory, so Plautius waited for the arrival of Claudius from Rome.

Question 30

What did the delay allow Caratacus to do?

Answer 30

Caratacus was given time to slip away westwards to Wales, where he was to fight the Romans for another eight years.

Question 31

What happened when Claudius arrived?

Answer 31

Claudius brought with him a number of war-elephants. Doubtless the people of Camulodunum were suitably impressed by the extraordinary sight of the emperor of Rome, with his elephants and his entourage, triumphantly marching into their settlement. Eleven British kings surrendered to him. After 16 days Claudius left Britain.

Question 32

What happened to Togodumnus and Caratacus?

Answer 32

Togodumnus died fighting either during the battle of the Medway or from wounds but Caratacus escaped westwards into Wales. The Catuvellauni, previously rulers of a mini-empire in southern Britain, had been defeated.

Question 33

What did Caratacus do when he fled to Wales?

Answer 33

Caratacus and his men sought refuge with the warlike Silures and Ordovices.

Question 34

What had Caratacus learned?

Answer 34

Caratacus had learned a lot about Roman methods and endurance from his first encounter with the legions. He knew that the British, flinging themselves into action with whirling swords and charging from thundering chariots, were no match for Roman troops in a set-piece battle. Nor were British hill forts safe from an enemy experienced in siege tactics. The roman military machine possessed not only heavy engineering capacity, but also formidable artillery: crossbows and slingshots firing stones, bolts and other kinds of assault missiles.

Question 35

what was British resistance in the West?

Answer 35

A guerrilla campaign fought in woods, marshes and hills. Warrior bands, operating with no unified command, attacked wherever and whenever a target of opportunity arose.

Question 36

What was Caratacus seen as?

Answer 36

The only British leader with enough charisma to command warriors from tribes other than his own. His high rank, as son of Cunobelinus, plus his talent for diplomacy and war, gave him a unique position – and made him Rome’s public enemy number one, the man to target. All Britons who feared or hated the Romans rallied to his cause.

Question 37

When did the Romans fight there last crucial battle?

Answer 37

AD 51

Question 38

What happened at this last battle?

Answer 38

The British general and his allies had chosen a site where both advance and retreat would be difficult for the Romans, yet easy for their own men. Its precise whereabouts remains unknown but must have been on the Welsh side of the River Severn. As before, the British trusted in a strip of water for their defence, and yet again the Romans proved their trust misguided by crossing the river without difficulty. The British grouped on a hillside, behind a rampart of stones. Rousing them by fiery speeches, Caratacus told his warriors that the battle would be decisive: either it would win back their freedom or condemn them to slavery. Ostorius Scapula’s men were up to the challenge. They stormed the hillside in testudo (tortoise) formation, holding aloft linked shields against the hail of stones and spears flung down at them. Breaching the rampart, they tore down its stones, drove back the enemy with javelins, and then closed in with their swords. In the words of Tacitus, it was ‘a glorious victory’

Question 39

What happened to Caratacus and his family?

Answer 39

The brothers, wife and daughter of Caratacus were captured. The British leader again escaped, fleeing north to the lands of the Brigantes, whose queen Cartimandua then treacherously handed him over to the enemy. Caratacus was taken a chained captive to Rome. There he made such a dignified and moving speech that Claudius pardoned him and his family, although they were not allowed to go back to Britain.

Question 40

Why was the response of British tribes to the arrival of the Romans mixed?

Answer 40

Some, such as Caratacus of the Catuvellauni, held out against Roman rule. Other tribal chieftains made peace with the invaders and became rulers of ‘client states’ on behalf of Rome. Cogidubnus, for example, was made a Roman citizen. The Brigantes, a northern tribe under a female ruler, Cartimandua, also collaborated with the Romans.

Question 41

Who were the Iceni ruled by, and when did he die?

Answer 41

the Iceni in Norfolk, were ruled by Prasutagus. In AD60 Prasutagus died. He bequeathed his kingdom jointly to his daughters and the Roman emperor, hoping in this way to keep his kingdom and household safe.

Question 42

Why was this device used by the Romans and what should have happened?

Answer 42

This was quite a common device by which wealthy Romans ensured the carrying-out of their wills. Under such an arrangement, part of the Icenian territory should have become imperial estate, and the emperor would have received a proportion of the royal treasure.

Question 43

What actually happened to the Iceni?

Answer 43

The local officers of the governor and of the provincial procurator (the man in charge of finance and taxation), Decianus Catus, however, treated the whole territory as if had been surrendered by a defeated enemy.

Question 44

Why did the Iceni complain?

Answer 44

The Iceni and their friends complained that the governor tyrannised over their persons, the procurator over their possessions. Centurions from the governor’s staff were plundering the kingdom. Icenian nobles were being evicted from their ancestral properties; members of the royal house were being treated as slaves. The late king’s widow, Boudica, was flogged and her daughters were raped.

Question 45

What was the result of such poor treatment of the Iceni?

Answer 45

The result was rebellion, led by Queen Boudica. She was joined by some other tribes, including the Iceni’s southern neighbours, the Trinovantes.

Question 46

Why had the Trinovantes had developed a special hatred for the veterans settled at Colchester?

Answer 46

They had driven native inhabitants from their homes and lands and were treating them like captives or slaves. They were also fed up with taxes imposed on them. The Romans had built a large temple in Colchester, dedicated to Claudius, and, to the Britons, this was a powerful symbol of the Romans’ oppression. They also had to pay extra taxes for its upkeep.

Question 47

What happened when the rebellion began?

Answer 47

The Roman governor, Suetonius Paulinus, was far away, campaigning in Mona (Anglesey) against the Druids, partly perhaps because of their human sacrifices and partly because they encouraged Britons to be rebellious. The most senior Roman official was the procurator, Decianus Catus. He failed to take decisive action and eventually fled to safety in Gaul.

Question 48

What was the Romans problem during the rebellion?

Answer 48

It’s hard to tell exactly but they probably had no more than 20,000 men in Britain. They were in four legions: the 14th and 20th thirty days’ march away on the far side of Wales, the 2nd not much closer in Gloucester. The 9th were 120 miles away, up in Lincoln.

Question 49

Where did Boudica go and what did she do there?

Answer 49

Boudica went for Colchester. The small garrison at Colchester positioned itself in and around the massive temple to Claudius. After a siege of two days Boudica took the temple, slaughtered the soldiers and burned the temple. Everyone Roman or romanized was massacred, and everything was destroyed.

Question 50

What were the Romans doing while Boudica was destroying the temple?

Answer 50

The 9th legion was marching to the rescue

Question 51

What did Boudicas victorious Britains do next?

Answer 51

The victorious Britons advanced from the sack of Colchester to meet it. By sheer force of numbers, they overcame and slaughtered the Roman infantry, and its commander, Petillius Cerialis, escaped with only his cavalry.

Question 52

What was London at the time?

Answer 52

London was a large, undefended town, full of Roman traders and their British associates, dependants and slaves. It contained a fortified military depot, valuable stores and a few soldiers.

Question 53

What did the citizens of London beg of Seutonius?

Answer 53

The citizens of London begged Suetonius to protect them but he realized that, because he did not have enough soldiers, it was impossible to defend the town, and, when he heard that Boudica and her army were marching south, he made the difficult, but probably right, decision to leave them to their fate.

Question 54

What did Seutonius eventually do?

Answer 54

Suetonius, at last reinforced, marched to the Midlands where Boudica had massed some 230,000 followers. Suetonius had about 10,000 men. When the British were successful, it was when they used hit-and-run tactics. Now Boudica was to fight on Roman terms.

Question 55

What happened at the battle between Seutonius and Boudica?

Answer 55

Suetonius chose his position carefully, drawing up his legionary troops in close order in a defile, protected in the rear by dense forest. Auxiliaries were stationed on the flanks, with cavalry in either wing. Boudica’s enormous force assembled in loose array. Behind it were its wagons, loaded with women and children, like grandstands at a Roman spectacle. The critical features of the engagement seem to have been the shock effect of the rain of javelins that descended upon the Britons after they had been lured into attacking up a slope, followed by the disciplined charge of the heavy infantry in wedge-formation, backed by the lighter units. This broke up the British army and forced it back upon the wagons. These turned into a trap when the carthorses were slaughtered by the Romans. Tacitus quotes figures of 80,000 British dead as against 400 Romans.

Question 56

What happened to Boudica?

Answer 56

Boudica escaped from the field but her death followed soon after – according to Tacitus, she committed suicide by poisoning herself.

Question 57

What did Seutonius do after the victory?

Answer 57

Suetonius set about laying waste the territory of all the British tribes that had joined the rebellion or just stayed neutral. He burned and killed, and salted fields. The Britons were in desperate straits, having failed to sow their crops earlier in the year, while they prepared for war, because they expected to capture the Roman military granaries.

Question 58

How did the new Roman procurator who arrived to replace Decianus Catus help the Britons?

Answer 58

Further misery was in part averted when a new Roman procurator arrived to replace Decianus Catus, the overbearing official whose harshness had enraged the Iceni. The province’s new financial master, Julius Classicianus, had more insight into the motives behind such rebellions and the consequences of repression, and he understood that tax revenues would not recover unless the British were given the chance to rebuild. He begged Nero to recall Suetonius and send out a more humane governor, to practise a policy of conciliation and repair, instead of aggravating the effects of what now could not be undone.

Question 59

Why did the south not rise again?

Answer 59

The governor who eventually replaced Paullinus (Turpilianus) and Classicianus achieved such a satisfactory settlement that the south never rose again.

Question 60

What have archaeologists found?

Answer 60

Archaeologists have found burnt material dating from Boudica’s revolt in both London and St Albans.

Question 61

What were the immediate effects of the rebellion?

Answer 61

 Paulinus inflicted punitive reprisals on hostile (and merely neutral) tribes , burning, killing, salting fields;
 forces were transferred from Germany to make up the losses to Legio IX;
 there also was famine, as the Britons had neglected to sow their crops for the season, assuming that they would capture the Roman grain stores.

Question 62

What were the long term effects of the rebellion?

Answer 62

	the tax system became more favourable;
	promotion of town life (eg Venta Icenorum) and associated benefits;
	increased discipline within the army;
	new governor (Turpilianus) sent;
	local chiefs given say in towns.