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PSY2007: Sex, Drugs, Rhythms and Blues > TOPIC 1: Sleep > Flashcards

TOPIC 1: Sleep Flashcards

1
Q

What is typically used to measure sleep in sleep research?

A

EEG (Electro-encephalogram neuronal activity)

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2
Q

TRUE or FALSE: EEG’s are an invasive measurement. Researchers directly stimulate the brain. They can pick up individual neuronal activity.

A

FALSE: EEG’s are non-invasive. Researchers place a net, or a few electrodes, on the scalp. These measure cortical activity near the electrodes. They often cannot detect individual neurons.

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3
Q

YES or NO: Do membrane potentials of neurons frequently change in voltage?

A

YES. Membrane potentials of neurons change voltage frequently. EEG’s pick up this summation of neuronal activity close to the electrode, rather than activity of individual neurons.

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4
Q

Explain small deflections in EEG waves. (3)

A

Small deflections are small changes in the population (summative) signal. This is unsynchronised neuronal activity where it changes on an individual scale. Neurons are firing independently.

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5
Q

Explain large deflections in EEG waves (3).

A

Large deflections indicate synchronised activity. There are large changes in the population (summative) signal. Neurons are firing simultaneously.

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6
Q

Name the three types of EEG activity.

A

Arousal, Relaxed, and Deep Sleep (Asleep)

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7
Q

What is the EEG pattern of arousal?

A

Smaller deflections. Neurons react to different tasks and are unsynchronised.

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8
Q

What is the EEG pattern when relaxed?

A

Slightly larger deflections. Neurons are synchronised to an extent.

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9
Q

What is the EEG pattern during deep sleep?

A

Large deflections and waves. Neurons are firing synchronously and focused on the same function.

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10
Q

FILL IN THE GAPS: Waves are measured in Hertz. 1 Hz equals 1 cycle per second. EEG uses _ waves. Hertz is a measurement of _. The number of _ in a wave, in one second, indicates the Hertz measurement.

A

Sine, frequencies, peaks

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11
Q

What are the four types of EEG wave?

A

Beta, Alpha, Theta, and Delta

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12
Q

What frequency is a Beta wave and what does this mean?

A

Beta waves have a frequency of 13-30 Hz. This means there are 13-30 peaks in one cycle.

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13
Q

What frequency are alpha waves?

A

Alpha waves have a frequency of 8 - 13 Hz.

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14
Q

TRUE or FALSE: Theta waves have a frequency of 3.5 to 7.5 Hz.

A

TRUE: Theta waves have a low frequency of 3.5 to 7.5.

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15
Q

FINISH THE SENTENCE: Delta waves have a frequency of _.

A

Delta waves have a frequency of <4Hz.

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16
Q

TRUE or FALSE: There are six stages of sleep.

A

FALSE: There are only four stages of sleep. Awake is not counted, and REM sleep is separate.

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17
Q

Describe EEG activity when awake (2). What are the two types of waves that emerge when awake?

A

When awake, EEG signals have small and quick deflections. These signals are typically beta and alpha waves.

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18
Q

Describe EEG activity during Stage 1 sleep. How long does it take to reach this stage? What is the condition of the individual?

A

Theta activity emerges - wave frequency decreases and is slower. Individuals do not know they are asleep. This transitional stage is entered after only 10 minutes.

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19
Q

What are the two key characteristics of Stage 2 sleep? Describe what these are and how long it takes to reach Stage 2 (5).

A

Sleep spindles and k-complexes. Sleep spindles are short bursts of 12-15Hz activity, which occur 2 to 5 times per minute. K-complexes are large deflections. These do not occur when awake. Stage 2 is reached after 10 - 15 minutes.

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20
Q

Describe the EEG activity during Stage 3 and 4 sleep (4). What does the brain enter? What happens when you wake someone up at this stage?

A

Delta activity emerges. These are large deflections and highly synchronised brain activity. The brain enters slow wave or deep sleep. If you wake up someone in this stage, they’re often confused.

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21
Q

What is the activity during REM or paradoxical sleep? (2)

A

Although the individual is genuinely asleep, activity appears as if one was awake. That is, beta and alpha waves are present in REM sleep.

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22
Q

TRUE or FALSE: Neurons are processing the same tasks during REM sleep.

A

FALSE. Neurons are processing different tasks during REM sleep. This is why it shows active brain activity, or theta and beta waves.

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23
Q

Name three characteristics of REM sleep.

A

Loss of muscle tone: Leads to paralysis where the body cannot move.
Penile erection and vaginal secretion are more common.
Clear, narrative dreams are associated only with REM sleep.

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24
Q

YES or NO. Sleep paralysis can only occur during functioning REM sleep.

A

NO. Sleep paralysis can occur when REM sleep does not function properly.

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25
Q

FINISH THE SENTENCE: REM sleep can be described as a _ awake brain in a _ body.

A

Metabolically, paralysed

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26
Q

Which two stages does the brain move between during sleep, and what is this cycling called?

A

REM and slow wave. They are defined, separate stages. Cycling between these stages is known as the sleep cycle.

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27
Q

How long is a typical sleep cycle?

A

90 minutes. The individual switches between REM and slow-wave during this time.

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28
Q

How can someone enter REM sleep earlier? Give an example.

A

By sleeping later in their circadian cycle. For example, if one usually sleeps at 9PM, they would enter REM sleep quicker if they slept at 10PM.

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29
Q

TRUE or FALSE. A person does not enter Stage 1 or Stage 2 sleep at all during the sleep cycle.

A

FALSE. A person can enter Stage 1 and Stage 2 briefly during the sleep cycle. These are considered transitional periods, rather than separate stages.

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30
Q

Name two species that do not sleep on a circadian cycle, but still sleep. What does this suggest?

A

River dolphins and ducks do not have a circadian cycle. Yet, they still sleep. This means sleep is crucial and evolution does not remove the trait.

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31
Q

How do sleep deprived individuals compensate for lost sleep? Is Stage 1 and Stage 2 sleep compensated for?

A

They compensate by more sleep later. Mainly REM and short-wave sleep is compensated for.

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32
Q

TRUE or FALSE. Sleep deprivation does not affect brain function.

A

NO. Sleep deprivation clearly affects brain function. It can cause detrimental effects on concentration, emotional control, and cognitive abilities. Sleep is integral to maintaining brain function.

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33
Q

Does sleep deprivation affect muscle conditions?

A

Lack of sleep does not affect ability to exercise. There is no difference in muscle conditions between those who have sufficient sleep and those who are deprived.

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34
Q

YES or NO. Can the brain and body be tired at separate times?

A

YES. The muscles can feel sore, but the brain can still be active. Similarly, the brain can be tired, but the muscles may not feel tired. Physical exhaustion is not the same as mental exhaustion.

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35
Q

What are the three theories of sleep function?

A

Evolutionary, Brain Recovery, and Memory Consolidation Theory

36
Q

What is the main hypothesis of Evolutionary Theory in sleep function? Give an example.

A

The function of sleep is to preserve energy during the least productive parts of the day.

For example, grazing animals, who spend more time grazing, sleep less than those actively hunting. Grazing animals have less inactive/unproductive moments than hunting animals, so they sleep less.

37
Q

According to the evolutionary theory, why have species evolved to sleep?

What are the advantages of sleep, and where does evidence for this theory come from?

A

Species have evolved to sleep when remaining awake in situations would pose the most harm. Animals awake during these moments are vulnerable. Therefore, inactive animals would have an advantage.

Species differences are typically consistent with the hypothesis of preserving energy.

38
Q

What are the negatives of evolutionary theory? (3).

A

Evolutionary theory does not explain outliers, such as river dolphins and ducks, who do not follow circadian rhythms.

It explains why we sleep, but falls short in explaining how and when we sleep.

It’s also counterintuitive when considering reactiveness. In these moments, it may be better to remain vigilant and awake. Sleeping would cause one to be vulnerable to attack.

39
Q

What is the main hypothesis of Brain Recovery Theory? Which stage of sleep does the theory focus on?

A

Brain recovery theory focuses on slow wave sleep.

It hypothesises that slow wave sleep allows the brain to return to normal, effective function. Sleep rests and recovers the brain.

40
Q

TRUE or FALSE. Temperature may increase slow-wave sleep. Exercise does not affect the amount of slow-wave sleep.

A

TRUE. Those who are warmer experience increased slow wave sleep than those who are colder.

Individuals who were cooled down after exercise experienced more slow-wave sleep than those who exercised alone.

41
Q

In-line with the brain recovery theory, what happens when an individual uses their brain more?

A

They experience more slower wave sleep. Mental engagement and exercise increase slow wave sleep.

42
Q

Aside from functional recovery, what else occurs in slow-wave sleep? Give an example.

A

Metabolic breakdown and clearing of hazardous byproducts.

One of these is Amyloid Beta, involved in Alzheimer’s disease, which when accumulated can kill cells.

43
Q

What happens if these hazardous byproducts are not removed in slow-wave sleep? What happens to the neuronal energy reserves?

A

Byproducts can accumulate and damage cells. Neuronal energy reserves are not replenished without sleep.

44
Q

FINISH THE SENTENCE: Removing hazardous byproducts during slow wave sleep is crucial in functions such as _ control and _.

A

Emotional, concentration.

45
Q

What are the two main functions of the brain proposed by Memory Consolidation Theory?

A

1) To be aware of its environment at all times.

2) To store memories for the long-term.

46
Q

Explain memory consolidation and memory formation (2).

A

Memory formation is the change in connectivity in neurons.

Memory consolidation is when connections between neurons are repeatedly consolidated. This cements the connections within the brain.

Neurons are being conditioned during memory consolidation. The event occurs over and over.

47
Q

Which type of memory is not consolidated, but still retained? Explain the characteristics of this type of memory.

A

Episodic memory.

This holds memory for unique events. Neuronal activity is not consolidated or repeated as the event does not repeat itself.

48
Q

Explain how episodic memories are stored in relation to sleep and memory consolidation theory.

A

As the event does not repeat itself, the brain instead replays the event constantly during certain stages of sleep.

49
Q

What is the main hypothesis of memory consolidation theory? (2).

A

The function of sleep is to replay previous neuronal activity.

This causes a structural change in neuronal connections relating to retaining memory and memory function.

50
Q

Why does memory consolidation occur during sleep and not in waking?

A

Environmental input is cut off during sleep. This allows the brain to consolidate connections without input from elsewhere.

51
Q

TRUE or FALSE: Memory consolidation only refers to REM sleep.

A

FALSE. Memory consolidation relates to both REM and slow-wave sleep.

Instead, they focus on two separate types of memory.

52
Q

In terms of memory consolidation theory, which type of memory does REM sleep consolidate? Give an example.

A

Procedural memories. This also includes perceptual memory, which is a form of procedural memory.

For example, recognition memory for different types of birds would be consolidated during REM sleep.

53
Q

FINISH THE SENTENCE: Following memory consolidation theory, REM sleep is crucial in improving/developing _ skills.

A

Non-declarative.

54
Q

In terms of memory consolidation theory, which stage of sleep consolidates explicit memories that are not constantly repeated?

What are the characteristics of explicit memories?

A

Slow-wave sleep.

Explicit memories are often declarative in nature and are hippocampus-dependent experiences.

55
Q

YES or NO. REM sleep can only consolidate procedural memories, and slow-wave sleep can only consolidate explicit memories.

A

NO. Both types of sleep can strengthen both types of memory. It is not a strict dichotomy. They strengthen each other’s memories to a lesser extent.

56
Q

Why does REM sleep occur more during early development and in infants?

A

Infants need to retain more procedural memories. This leads to increased amounts of REM sleep.

57
Q

What happens to rats which are deprived of REM sleep?

A

REM-deprived rats perform worse on memory retention tasks than those who had access to REM sleep.

58
Q

How is REM sleep manipulated in these experiments? Can REM manipulation be continuous?

A

REM sleep is manipulated through the sleep cycle. Once the rat shows awake-like activity, they are woken up as they’re beginning to enter REM sleep.

REM manipulation cannot be continuous. It is also compensated for later, as with sleep in general.

59
Q

If REM sleep cannot be continuously manipulated, what are the main suggestions of memory consolidation theory?

A

Memory consolidation theory suggests REM sleep, and sleep entirely, is crucial towards plasticity and learning.

60
Q

Explain the results of the human REM sleep disruption study by Mednick et al. (2003). (4).

A

Participants who did not nap performed the worst on a non-declarative visual discrimination task than those who did nap. They also did not improve.

If the participant entered slow-wave sleep, but not REM sleep, they performed better than no sleep at all. Yet, they were worse than having both slow-wave and REM sleep.

Those who had both REM and slow-wave sleep improved the most and performed the best at the task.

61
Q

Following the results of Mednick et al. (2003), finish the sentence.

REM sleep is crucial in consolidating _ memories, leading to _ task performance.

A

Procedural, better

62
Q

Which area is central to forming episodic and spatial memories?

A

The hippocampus.

63
Q

In rat and some human studies, how does the hippocampus form episodic memories?

A

Memory traces stored in hippocampal circuitry are replayed during slow-wave sleep. This is how episodic memories are formed.

64
Q

In rats, how is spatial information processed? (2).

A

In rats, every section of the world is processed in different neurons. This forms unique circuits.

65
Q

How do memory traces and slow-wave sleep interact? Has there been evidence seen in humans?

A

The firing order of neurons during slow-wave sleep is the same as when the rat is awake.

This implies that cells are activated in the same waking order during slow-wave sleep. Slow-wave sleep replays this activity, consolidating episodic memories.

Similar evidence with humans confirms the importance of slow-wave sleep for explicit memory consolidation.

66
Q

TRUE or FALSE. The hippocampus can hold unique circuits, or memory traces, indefinitely.

A

FALSE. The hippocampus cannot retain memory traces. Therefore, slow-wave sleep is crucial to consolidate and retain explicit memories.

67
Q

Tucker et al. (2006) looked at short-wave sleep and memory consolidation in humans. What were the conditions and results of the study?

A

Participants learned random word pairs. One group was allowed to nap, the other was not.

Performance, as in word pair recall, in the nap group was much better than the no-nap group.

68
Q

Tucker et al. (2006) also used a mirror tracing task. This measured procedural memory. What were the results and what does this show?

A

Both groups, no-nap and nap, showed the same level of improvement in the mirror tracing task.

Slow-wave sleep had no effect on performance.

Both studies show slow-wave sleep deprivation negatively affects declarative memory, but has no affect on procedural memory. Non-declarative memory, or procedural memory, is related to REM instead.

69
Q

Which study employed odours during learning?

A

Rasch et al. (2007).

70
Q

What were the conditions and procedure of Rasch et al. (2007)’s odour study? What did they expect?

A

During learning, participants were placed in rooms which smelled of a certain odour. During the night, researchers would waft the same odour during slow-wave sleep.

If slow-wave sleep replays the context the participant experienced in waking, the odour would be a context cue and this would produce a reaction. The reaction is improved performance.

71
Q

What were the results of Rasch et al. (2007)’s study and what does this show?

A

Those who had the odour wafted at them during slow-wave sleep performed better during retrieval than those who had only air wafted.

This suggests that the brain replays the same circuitry, or memory traces,

72
Q

What were the results of Rasch et al. (2007)’s study and what does this show?

A

Those who had the odour wafted at them during slow-wave sleep performed better during retrieval than those who had only air wafted.

This suggests the brain replays the same circuitry, or memory traces, during slow-wave sleep from when the odour was smelt at learning. This replay allows memory consolidation.

73
Q

Rasch et al. (2007) also employed three other studies: Changing the odour, odour during REM, and no odour wafted when asleep (only awake and learning).

What were the results of these studies and what do they show?

A

Odour change: Rose odour specifically was not a component in better performance. Any odour could be a context cue if it was also wafted in learning.

Odour during REM: Groups performed similarly (i.e., no odour versus odour wafted). This indicates that REM sleep does not affect declarative learning performance.

No odour during sleep: Both groups performed similarly. This indicates odour circuit consolidation during slow-wave sleep is specifically linked to improved retrieval.

74
Q

Explain how brain recovery theory and memory consolidation theory may work together.

A

Slow-wave sleep in brain recovery theory relates to clearing hazardous byproducts and restoring the brain to a functional state. It is also involved in consolidating declarative, explicit memories.

REM sleep is involved in consolidating non-declarative, procedural memories. The awake-like activity during REM sleep may be the replaying of procedural/spatial memories from waking.

75
Q

TRUE or FALSE. You can experience dreams in every sleep stage.

A

FALSE. Dreams exclusively occur during REM sleep, but it is possible for dreams to emerge during non-REM sleep.

76
Q

How can dreams work and be explained through memory consolidation theory?

A

Dreams are a replay of experiences that often do not mirror what has actually occurred. Different elements from all experiences replay in random orders to create dreams.

77
Q

What is the difference between dreams experienced between slow-wave and REM sleep?

A

REM sleep is associated with clear, narrative dreams. These dreams do not appear in slow-wave sleep. Instead, slow-wave sleep is associated with night terrors.

78
Q

Name three characteristics of dreams and their relation to memory consolidation theory.

A

1) Dreams are easily forgotten. When one wakes up, the content of the dream is usually lost. This links to REM sleep and the consolidation of non-declarative memory.
2) REM comes from the Rapid Eye Movements of this stage. This is theorised to relate to experiencing the dream itself.
3) Dreams are side effects of memory consolidation. We are trying to make sense of patterns and experiences. As such, these experiences are replayed back to us through dream scenarios.

79
Q

Explain Hobson’s Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis in relation to dreams.

A

External and internal stimuli (memories, recent experiences, and thinking about these experiences) are synthesised by the brain to create a story. This synthesis results in a dream.

Dreams attempt to make sense of all the experiences the individual has experienced. Thus, these experiences are synthesised and presents itself as a narrative.

80
Q

YES or NO: If we consider memory consolidation, do dreams serve any function?

A

NO. Dreams are only a side effect of REM function. They are the products of processing non-declarative and procedural memories.

Dreams are mechanistic and not functional; they don’t serve a specific purpose, they occur because of processing during REM sleep.

81
Q

Damage to which area of the brain causes one to experience life as a dream? What is this area also involved in?

A

Damage to the inferior frontal cortex causes one to experience life as a dream. This area is also associated with lucid dreaming - the manipulation of and awareness that one is dreaming.

82
Q

As one ages, sleep declines. This is a mechanistic effect of age. Why do memory impairments also emerge in older age as well?

A

Sleep is needed to consolidate memories.

Therefore, if one becomes unable to sleep in later life, the functions of sleep are hindered, and this includes memory consolidation.

83
Q

Name two of the principle cells in the nervous system.

A

Neurons and glia.

84
Q

Explain the difference between neurons and glia.

A

Although more in number, glia (meaning ‘glue’) acts as a support for neurons. They are involved in neuron maintenance.

Neurons take precedence in the nervous system and are involved in communication.

85
Q

What are the two forms of neuron communication?

A

1) Within-cell communication. This involves electrical, action potential signals.
2) Between-cell communication. This involves chemical signals (neurotransmitters).

PSY2007: Sex, Drugs, Rhythms and Blues (7 decks)

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