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(A Level) Biology > Topic 1 - CVD 1.5 - 1.11 > Flashcards

Topic 1 - CVD 1.5 - 1.11 Flashcards

1
Q

What is CVD

A

Any disease that effects the heart and blood vessels

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2
Q

What is atherosclerosis

A

A process where a plaque builds up in the artery

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3
Q

Describe the process of atherosclerosis

A

-High blood pressure damages the endothelium

  • Inflamatory response is triggered and white blood cells move into arterial walls
  • Cholesterol builds up under the arterial wall forming an atheroma
  • Ca2+ salts in the blood + fibrous tissue cause the atheroma to harden into an atherosclerotic plaque
  • The hardening of a plaque causes the arterial wall to lose elastcity (reducing stretch and recoil)

-The lumen is also narrowed by the plaque

-Blood pressure increases further

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4
Q

What is a positive feedback loop

A

Where increasing one factor results in a change that increases the factor further

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5
Q

What is thrombosis

A

The process of forming a blood clot

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6
Q

What is the blood clotting cascade

A

A series of steps that must happen in a specific order to form a blood clot after injury

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7
Q

Why does blood clot

A

To prevent blood loss

Toprevent pathogens from entering the body

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8
Q

What are platelets

A

Tiny fragments of cells (with no nucleus) which are activated when blood vessels are damaged / rubtured

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9
Q

What happens in the blood clotting cascade

A

The arterial wall is damaged.
Platelets stick to the ruptured site and are exposed to collagen

This causes thromboplastin to be released.
In the presense of ca2+ and vitamin K, thromboplastin converts prothrombin into thrombin.

Thrombin then acts as a catalyst to convert (abundant and insoluble) fibrinogen into (soluble) fibrin.

Strands of fibrin form a mesh which trap platelets and red blood cells
This forms a blood clot.

The blood clot CAN harden to form a scab

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10
Q

What is Prothrombin

A

A soluble plasma protein used in the blood clotting cascade.

It is converted into thrombin by Thromboplastin

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11
Q

What is thromboplastin

A

A chemical found in platelets and a tissue factor

It converts prothrombin in thrombin when in the pressence of ca2+ and vitamin K

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12
Q

What is thrombin

A

A globular enzyme that acts as a catalyst

It converts thrombin to fibrinogen

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13
Q

What is fibrinogen

A

An abundant plasma protein. It is soluble and always readily available

It is converted into fibrin by thrombin

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14
Q

What is fibrin

A

An insoluble, long stranded protein.

It forms a mesh to trap platelets and RBC’s

It is made when thrombin catalyses fibrinogen into fibrin

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15
Q

What are coronary heart diseases (CHD)

A

Diseases which affect coronary circulartion

(vessels taht suppy the caridac muscle with oxygen)

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16
Q

What is angina

A

The partial blockage / narrowing of coronary arteries.

It causes mild discomfort /chest pain

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17
Q

How does angina cause heart / chest pain

A

During exercises the herat requires more o2 as it contracts more

The partial blockage reduces the amount of o2 supplied to cardiac muscle

This means there is less aerobic respiration and less ATP

This means more anaeronbic respiration will occur

This means there is an increase in lactic acid produced

Lactic acid causes heart pain.

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18
Q

What is a stroke - (Ischemic stroke)

A

Sudden loss of brain function due to a blockage in arteries

-strokes can be fatal depending on where oxygen is blocked from

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19
Q

How does blockage in arteries cause a stroke

A

Less oxygen is supplide to the brain, so less aerobic respiration occurs

Anaerobic respiration increases, and more lactic acid is produced.

this decreases the pH and causes vital enzymes to denature

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20
Q

What is a heart attack (Myocardial infraction)

A

Complete blockage of coronary arteries
Caused by blood clots or atheromas
Can lead to cardiac muscle or heart failure (as the blood stops)

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21
Q

How do Heart attack occur

A

Cessation of blood flow (it stops)
Less / no oxygen is supplied to cardiac muscle
Aerobic respiration decreases, so ATP decreaes
The heart muscle cant contratct (its dead)

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22
Q

What does Ischemic meaWhat is Ischemia

A

The stoppage / restriction of blood flow

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23
Q

What is an anneurysm

A

The swelling / buldging of blood vessels

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24
Q

How do anneurysms occur

A

When the arterial wall is damaged, elasticity is damages, so it cannot stretch to accomodate blood volume.

as the blood volume increases the artery buldges

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25
Q

What is a haemorrhage

A

The ruputure of blood vessels

Can lead to internal bleeding

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26
Q

What are Multifactorial traits

A

Different fsctors that affect risk of developing diseases interacting together

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27
Q

What are modifiable factors

A

Factors that can change over time.

E.g lifestyle and environmental factors

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28
Q

What are non modifiable factors

A

Factors outside of your control

E.g Genetics, biological sex, age

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29
Q

What is risk

A

Statistical chance or probability that an unwanted event will occur

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30
Q

Why is risk overestimated

A

Misleading information
Personal Experience
Unfamiliar scenario
Harm is immediated

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31
Q

Why is risk underestimated

A

Lack of information
Misunderstanding
Lack of personal experience
Harm is not immediate

32
Q

What is correlation

A

Association / between two variables

33
Q

What is causation

A

When a change in one variable directly causes a change in another

34
Q

What is a cohort (longitudinal) studies

A

A study where:

  • Participants tracked over a long period of time
  • Groups are either exposed to a factor or not exposed.

These studies look at how something developes over time

35
Q

What is a case control study

A

A study where people with a disease are compared to thoes that are not

The data collected is from the individuals had the disease

36
Q

How do you evaluate a good study. (7 things)

A

1) Sample Size - The sample size needs to be large enough

2) Sample selection - must represent the whole population

3) Reliabilty - It must be both repetable, and valid
There should be and expremental control

4) Reproducibility - Do others obtain the same results when repeated

5) Bias - Are they looking for a specific outcome

6) Time - Was the study long enough to obtain enough data to make a conclusion

7) Statistical significance - Is the data due to chance

37
Q

How can you tell if data is statistically significant

A

If the error bars / data overlap the differnence between data is not statistically significant .

38
Q

How does age effect the risk of CVD

A

Age:
- risk increases with age since, the factors accumulate other time
E.g The older you are the more atherosclerotic plaques you will have

39
Q

How does Biolgical sex effect the risk of CVD

A
  • Men are 3x more likely to have CVD than pre-menopausal woman
  • Oestrogen increases HDLs which removes cholesterol from blood

-Men also have more testosterone - so more adrenaline, which increases BP

40
Q

How does smoking / vaping effect the risk of CVD

A

1) Nicotine causes vasoconstriction. (narrowing the lumen)
It also increases blood viscosity (platelet join togeteher more = more clots)

2) Carbon monoxide has a greater binding affinity to haemoglobin.
This means less oxygen is carried in the blood.

3) It reduces the number of antioxidants - There are more free radicals so more damage to cells

41
Q

How does drinking alcohol effect the risk of CVD

A

It causes blood vessles to become narrower which reduces blood flow and increases blood pressure

It increases blood volume

42
Q

How does your diet effect your risk of developing CVD

A

Excess energy intake causes wight gain + excess carbohydrates are stored as fats (causing diabetes which increases BP)

  • Excess saturated fats mean you will have more LDLs in blood
  • Excess salt itake causes more blood to be retained by the kidneys ( increase in blood volume)
  • Lack of antioxidants (free radicals are not neutralised )
43
Q

What are high density lipoproteins (HDLs)

A

Proteins that transported unsaturated fats (cholesterol) From body tissue to the liver

They decrease the amount of Blood cholesterol

44
Q

What are Low Density Lipoproteins (LDLs)

A

They transport saturated fats from the liver to cells

They move cholesterol into the blood stream

45
Q

Why is having a high ratio of LDLs to HDls bad

A

LDLs bind to cell receptors to be taken into cells by endocytosis

If there are too many LDLs the receptors become saturated (full) then the cholesterol remains in the blood.

46
Q

WHat happens when there is a high HDL: LDL ratio

A

More cholesterol is removed from the blood stream so there is a protective effect from CVD

47
Q

When is someone obese

A

When they have a high excess in body fat compared to lean body tissue

48
Q

What causes obesity / what is it most commoly a risk factor for

A

It is caused by having a poor diet or sedenatry lifestyle

It is greatly increases the risk for type two diabetes

49
Q

What is an energy budget

A

The energy input —- energy output

50
Q

What happens when energy input > enregy output

A

There will be wight gain (due to excess energy being stored as fats)

51
Q

What happens when energy input =energy output

A

Weight is maintained

52
Q

What happens when energy input < energy output

A

Weight is lost
This caun resut in people being underweight and having nutrient defficiencies

53
Q

What is Basal metabolic rate

A

The energy required to keep the body functioning at rest

54
Q

What effects Basal metabolic rate

A

Age
biological sex
Genetics
Fitness
Muscle mass

55
Q

What is the Body mass index (BMI)

A

A meassure of body weight in comparrison of height

It is used to determine whether someone is overweigh or underweight

56
Q

How is bmi calculated

A

Weight (kg) / height ^2 (m)

57
Q

What is th emain issue with BMI

A

It does not take weight distribution into account

58
Q

What is the wait : hip

A

The waist to hip ratio is commonly used alongside BMI

It takes into account a persons distribution of fat

59
Q

What should a mans waist : hip be

A

less than 1

60
Q

What should a womans waist : hip be

A

less than 0.85

61
Q

How is waist : hip calculated

A

Waist circumfrence (cm) / Hip circumfrence

62
Q

What changes in lifestyle can be made to reduce blood pressure

A

Reducing salt intake
Excercising often
Reducing alcohol intake
Losing weight
Having a healthier diet
Stop smoking

63
Q

What are antihypertensives

A
  • Made to control hypertension
    (blood pressure)
64
Q

What do diuretics do? (type of antihypertensives)

A

Drugs that increase the volume of water in urine + reduces salt reabsorption
-This reduces blood volume (ant therefore Blood pressure)

65
Q

What do vasodialtors do (type of antihypertensive)

A

Drugs that increase the lumen of blood vessels (can accomodate a greater blood volume, so blood pressure is lower)

It commonly blocks a hormone (angiotensin) that controls the constriction of blood vessels

66
Q

What do beat blockers do (type of antihypertensive)

A

They reduce arterial constiriction and reduce the strength of heart beats ( by making cardiac muscle contrsct weaker.

They can also block adrenaline

67
Q

What are anticoagulants

A

Drugs that increase blood clotting time - making it take longer for blood clots to form

They interfere with blood clotting factors

68
Q

What does Warfarin do?

A

An anticoagulant that reduces the amount of vitamin k produced by the body (Affecting the blood clotting cascade)

69
Q

What are platelet inhibtory drugs

A

Drugs that prevent platelet formation
This reduces the formation of blood clots

70
Q

What is asprin

A

A platelet inhibitorty drug that affects the part of the blood clotting cascade where platelets become sticky

71
Q

What are statins

A

Drugs which lower blood cholesterol levels - blocks enzymes that control cholesterol synthesis

Low3ers LDL production and increases HDL production

72
Q

What are the side effects of antihypertensives

A

Arrythmias
fainting
Headaches
Drausiness
Palpataions
Nausea

73
Q

What are the side effects of Anticoagulants

A

Internal bleeding
Bruising
Nosebleeds

74
Q

What are the side effects of Platelets inhibitory drugs

A

Nausea
Excessive bleeding

75
Q

What are the side effects of Statins

A

Muscle pain
Headaches
Increased risk of diabetes

(A Level) Biology (8 decks)

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