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Biology > topic 1 (biological membrane) > Flashcards

topic 1 (biological membrane) Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what is metabolism?

A

all the chemical processes that take place in a living organism

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2
Q

what is a reducing sugar?

A

A sugar that can donate an electron or hydrogen to a chemical to reduce it.
All monosaccharides and some disaccharides are reducing sugar

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3
Q

what is the test for reducing sugar?

A

Add 2cm of sample to test tube
If not in liquid form grind with water
Add equal amount of benedicts reagent
If sample is a reducing sugar the solution should turn from blue to orange/brown

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4
Q

what are the monosaccharides joined to form maltose

A

glucose + glucose

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5
Q

what are the monosaccharides joined to form sucrose

A

glucose + fructose

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6
Q

what are the monosaccharides joined to form lactose

A

glucose + galactose

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7
Q

what type of reaction are dissacharides produced from?

A

condensation reaction between monosaccharides that remove h2o forming a glycosidic bond

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8
Q

what type of reaction are dissacharides broken down in?

A

hydrolysis reaction by adding h2o that breaks the glycosidic bond and leaves 2 monosaccharides

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9
Q

test for non reducing sugar?

A

as only some dissacharides are reducing sugars
Add 2cm of sample (grind and add water to make liquid)
heat with equal amount of benedicts solution (5mins)
if it remains blue and doesnt go orange it means it is not a reducing sugar
Add 2cm HCL to hydrolyse disaccharides
Add sodium hydrogencarbonate to neutralise acid
Add Benedict reagent (only works in alkaline test pH)
Re test heating up (5 min)
It should now turn orange/brown

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10
Q

describe the features of polysaccharides

A

large molecules that are insoluble

suitable for storage

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11
Q

test for starch

A

Add 2cm of sample
Add potassium iodide solution
Will go from yellow to blue/black if starch is present

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12
Q

where is a starch found and describe its structure?

A

its a polysaccharide made from glycosidic bonds between a-glucose.It can be branched/unbranched. When branched it coils tightly making it compact.
It is found in plants.
the branched form has many endings which enzymes can act on to release glucose monomers quickly

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13
Q

describe the function and role of starch

A

insolouble so doesnt affect water potential
Large so cannot diffuse out of cells
can hydrolyse to form a-glucose that can be used in respiration
compact so lots can be stored in small space

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14
Q

describe the structure of glycogen and where it is found?

A

its a polysaccharide made from glycosidic bonds between a-glucose.It has shorter chains but highly branched
It is found in animals in small granules in the liver and muscles

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15
Q

describe the role of glycogen

A

insolouble so does not affect water potential/ water doesnt come into cell via osmosis
large does not diffuse out of cell
compact can be stored in small spaces
more branched than starch so can be broken down be enzyme to produce glucose monomers which is used in respiration
this is useful as animals have a higher metabolic reaction and therefore higher respiratory rate

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16
Q

why is little glycogen stored in the body?

A

Fat is the main energy store

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17
Q

describe the strucutre of cellulose and where it is found?

A

polysaccharide made from glycosidic bonds between b-glucose.
It has straight unbranched chains that are parralel
forms hydrogen bond cross linkages between adjacent chains
this strengthens cellulose

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18
Q

what are fibres and microfibrils formed from?

A

cellulose molecules join to form microbrils which can be arranged in parralel groups called fibres

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19
Q

what is the role and function of cellulose?

A

provides rigidity to the plant cell
prevents the cell from bursting as water enters by osmosis it does this by exerting inward pressure stopping water from entering
this makes plant cell turgid and push against making non woody parts of the plant semi rigid.
This is important in maintaining stems and leaves in a turgid state so they can provide maximum surface area for photosynthesis

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20
Q

what are the role of lipids?

A

source of energy - release double the energy of carbohydrates
waterproof- insolouble in water
insulation - slow conductors of heat and
protection - stored around delicate organs e.g kidneys

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21
Q

the structure of tryglecerides and how they are related to their properties?

A

High ratio of energy storing C-H bonds to C atoms making it an excellence source of energy
Good mass to energy ratio allowing more energy to be stored in a smaller space.
This is useful for animals as they can carry more energy
Large non polar and insolouble so do not affect water potential and osmosis
high ratio of H to O making it a useful water supply when tryglycerides are oxidised

22
Q

test for lipids/emulsion test?

A

add 2cm of sample
add 2cm3 of ethanol
add 5cm of water
If it goes cloudy white lipid present

23
Q

describe the funcional group of an amino acids?

A

H
NH2-C -COOH
R

24
Q

how peptides form dipeptides?

A 
condensation reaction
         H                         H
NH2-C-COOH + NH2-C-COOH  
         R                          R
hydrogen and oxygen removed from COOH
Hydrogen removed from NH2
         H              H
NH2-C-CO-NH-C-COOH
         R               R
25
Q

describe primary structure of proteins?

A

Primary structure is based on the amino acids and their order.
A single change in amino acid sequence can create a different polypeptide

26
Q

describe 2nd secondary?

A

In C=O the C is slightly negative while in NH2 the H is slighlty positive.
This causes hydrogen bonds between them
This can cause a-helix and b-pleated sheets in the polypeptide

27
Q

describe tierary structure?

A

disulphide bridges- strong
ionnic bonds -between nh2 and cooh that are not used in peptide bonds
hydrogen bonding

28
Q

describe quarternary strucutre?

A

various polypeptides linked with non-protein prostheic group e.g haem groups in hameoglobin

29
Q

test for protein?

A

Add equal volume of sample and NaOH
Add few drops of copper(II) sulfate solution
blue to purple indicates protein presence

30
Q

describe induced model fit

A

The enzyme is flexible and can mould itself around the substrate .As it changes shape it puts a strain on the substrate. This distorts bonds in the substrate lowering activation energy required to break.The reaction happens and the products and the enzyme returns back to its original shape

31
Q

how to measure enzyme catalysed reactions?

A

the formation of products

the dissapearance of substrate

32
Q

how does temperature affect enzyme activity?

A

increasing temperature increases kinetic energy.particles move around quicker and faster so their is a higher chance of achieving activation energy.So reactions are more successful. However increasing too much distorts enzyme bonds denaturing it

33
Q

how does pH affect enzyme activity?

A

Change in pH alters the charges on the amino acids that make up the active site of the enzyme. So the substrate is no longer complimentary and enzyme-substrate complexes are not formed.
A significant change in pH can cause the bonds that make the tiertary structure of the active site to change

34
Q

what are competitive inhibitors?

A

they are molecules that have a similar shape as the substrate. This means they can occupy active sites as they are complementary. At low conc these do not affect reaction rate that much. However at higher conc it will affect reaction rate as the active site is occupied by them and not with the substrate

35
Q

what are non competitive inihibitors?

A

Non competitive inihibitors do not bind at the active site but rather at a binding site. In doing this they change the shape of the active site so it is no longer complementary to the substrate.An increase in substrate conc will not help as the enzyemes are no longer complementary and cannot produce the enzyme-substrate complex needed to catalyse the reaction

36
Q

what are the components for one DNA nucleotide

A

Pentose (deoxyribose sugar)
base (adenine, guanine cytosine,thymine )
phosphate group

37
Q

what bonds DNA nucleotides to another nucleotide?

A

Dna bases can form a phosphodiester bond between phosphate group and ribose sugar

38
Q

what are the compnonents of RNA?

A

pentose (ribose sugar)
nucleotide base (Adenine guanine cytosine uracil)
Phosphate group

39
Q

which of the nucleotides are complementary?

A

Adenine and Thymine/Uracil

Guanine and Cytosine

40
Q

What makes DNA stable

A

the phosphodiester bond protects the more chemically reactive organic bases inside the double helix
the hydrogen bonding between nucleotide pairs especially C-G as it produces the most hydrogen bonds (3 more)

41
Q

what is DNA adapted for?

A

stable molecules that allows it to be passed on without mutations mostly
2 strands that can be opened for DNA replication and protein synthesis
Large so can carry a lot of genetic information

42
Q

what is required for semi conservative replication?

A

DNA helicase DNA polymerase
Energy source ATP
DNA template

43
Q

Describe the process of semi conservative replication

A

hydrogen bonds between nucleotide bases is broken by DNA helicase
This opens up the 2 stranded DNA
A template strand is chosen
complimentary nucleotide bases around the nucleus are bonded to the template strand
This is helped by DNA polymerase
T

44
Q

what is ATP made from

A

Pentose sugar
Adenine base
3 phosphate groups

45
Q

what is equation for ATP to ADP and what is the enzyme used?

A

ATP + H2O -> ADP + Pi + energy
ATP hydrolyse
hydrolysis reaction

46
Q

Why is ATP easily hydrolysed?

A

The 3 phosphate groups in ATP are unstable so have a low activation energy

47
Q

How does ATP get reformed from ADP

A

It is a reversibe reaction (condensation)
It requires energy to Add the Phosphate back to the ATP
It is catalysed by ATP synthase
The phosphate is added back in plants by photophosphorylation
The phosphate is added back in animals by oxidative phosphorylation,substrate level phosphorylation

48
Q

Why is ATP not stored in abundance?

A

It is an immediate energy source. Glycogen is a much better long term store
This is because ATP is hydrolsed quickly to form energy wheras glucose requires a lot of reactions
ATP also produced much less energy which is more manageble

49
Q

describe the uses of ATP?

A

active transport
metabolic processes making starch from glucose
movement (muscle contraction)
secretion
phosphorylate other molecules e.g glucose with the extra phosphate

50
Q

what are the features of water?

A

dipolar slighly positive hydrogen and negative oxygen
this allows for hydrogen bonding
This gives it a higher specific heat capacity
Can therefore act as a buffer against sudden changes
Also a higher latent heat for vaporisation this makes sweating a useful way to use energy to evaporate water
They are cohesive can be pulled through xylem vessel
surface tension strong enough to supprt small insects

51
Q

How is water in used in metabolism?

A

Hydrolysis reactions to break down bigger molecules

52
Q

how is water used as a solvent?

A

dissolves other substances e.g gases CO2 and O2

wastes such as urea and ammonia

Biology (9 decks)

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