Topic 1 Flashcards

Question

What is consciousness?

Answer 1

The waking state (v. asleep) An organism's awareness of something either internal (thoughts, feelings, memories etc.) or external to itself

Answer 2

Can be affected by changes in the chemical structure of our brain (drugs/alcohol)

Answer 3

Maybe the evolution of our communication abilities gave rise to consciousness

Answer 4

'Awareness' means the ability of an animal subject to guide movements 'prospectively' to sustain a coherent Self in its world

Answer 5

Human beings are one of the many animal species among all living beings that inhabit the earth, but, what makes us different is our complexity and intelligence, giving us superior capabilities related to our psychological and brain functions.

Answer 6

human beings are gregarious (sociable). It is a biological characteristic. Like in other animal species, people seek other people to live and survive, establishing groups and then societies. So human beings are biological organisms, with a consciousness (psyche), that need to live with other organisms of their own species, understanding their behaviour as a biopsychosocial unit

Answer 7

it is the objective and material part; it is composed of all biological systems of the body,that allow existence, stability and health in the surrounding material reality.

Answer 8

it is the intangible and immaterial part, the mind; multiple phenomena based on the biological systems (endocrine and nervous), but with its own structure and functioning. This part is responsible for human beings ability to interact and respond to changes in their environment. In addition, it brings emotional stability, consciousness and perspective

Answer 9

It is human beings habitat,because people live in society since birth. Human beings are in nature gregarious, they need social interaction with other people to survive. Besides, during their lives people are influenced by the society where they live, through cultural customs, traditions, religion, social norms (law) and the political system among others

Answer 10

consciousness as 'acting with knowledge' requires a nervous system that regulates prospective perception in intentional engagement with the world

Answer 11

The human brain and the interpreted automatic formal devices (such as the digital computer) are equivalent systems. The fact that they are made up of differen kinds of material - protoplasm and silicon - is irrelevant. In all ways that matter, they are exactly the same type of system. Intelligence is computation

Answer 12

Neuroscience considers that once we fully understand brain functioning, the mind-brain problem will be solved. There is still a lot to know. We are far from the complete understanding of our Nervous System

Answer 13

Structural and functional unit of NS. Each neuron is composed of soma or body and two kinds of extensions: dendrites and axons. Neurotransmitter vesicles are located in the terminal branches of axon

Answer 14

the cell body that contains the organelles, such as the nucleus. I is involved in important housekeeping functions such as storing genetic material and making proteins and other molecules that are necessary for the cell’s survival

Answer 15

The receiving part of the neuron. Dendrites receive synaptic inputs from axons, with the sum total of dendritic inputs determining whether the neuron will fire an action potential

Answer 16

Brief electrical event typically generated in the axon that signals the neuron as 'active'. An action potential travels the length of the axon and causes release of neurotransmitter into the synapse. The action potential and consequent transmitter release allow the neuron to communicate with other neurons.

Answer 17

also called nerve fibre, portion of a nerve cell (neuron) that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body. A neuron typically has one axon that connects it with other neurons or with muscle or gland cells

Answer 18

The nerve cells that detect and responds to external signals. They receive information via their receptors, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, and convert this information into electrical impulses. These impulses act as signals and are passed on to the central nervous system. The spinal cord and brain then receive and respond to this information

Answer 19

Motor neurons transmit signals to muscle cells or glands to control their functional output. It is your motor neurons that would actually initiate the muscles in your arm to lift it off of the hot stove, in response to the signals from the sensory neurons

Answer 20

Interneurons connect sensory motor neurons, transmitting information between them in cases where the two neurons are not directly connected to one another. They don't receive information from the sense or transmit signals to the muscles, but they connect neurons. They represent 99% of all neurons.

Answer 21

The NS is the major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the body. It is the center of all the mental activity including thought, learning and memory. Together with the endocrine system, the nervous system is responsible for regulating and maintaining homeostasis. Through its receptors the nervous system keeps us in touch with out environment, both external and internal.

Answer 22

Divided in the CNS and PNS based on its position. The CNS is made up of brain (protected by the skull) and spinal cord. The PNS contains spinal nerves and ganglia (group of neuron, sensory or motor, cell bodies)

Answer 23

take in sensory information, process information and send out motor signals

Answer 24

Somatic Nervous system is responsible for the control of voluntary acts and the adaption to the environment. Afferent nerves and efferent nerves.

Answer 25

afferent nerves (which send information to the brain and spinal cord), made of sensory neurons that inform the central nervous system about our five senses Efferent nerves (which send information from the brain), which contain motor neurons responsible for voluntary movements, such as walking or lifting an object

Answer 26

The prefrontal cortex makes up over 10% of the volume of the brain, and thus is involved in many functions, but probably it is best known for the executive function. In general, executive functions focus on controlling short-sighted, reflexive behaviours to take part in things like planning, decision making, problem-solving, self control, and acting with long-term goals in mind

Answer 27

damage confined to the prefrontal cortex often display normal movement, sensory perception, and even intelligence. * But they frequently experience deficits in executive functions, along with personality changes, abnormalities in emotional responses, and general difficulty functioning in their daily lives. Ex: Phineas Gage

Answer 28

The Limbic system is a set of structures in the brain that impacts emotions, learning, memory, and other behavioral patterns. Specific hormones that regulate the autonomic nervous system are also linked to this system. * The brain structures are a part of the control system that resonates with the feelings and emotions connected to hunger, thirst, motivation and reward, and the fight or flight responses

Answer 29

Cybernetics is an intellectual movement that is inspired by questions about how animals and humans maintain equilibrium within, and respond appropriately to, their ever-changing environment. It is a multidisciplinary movement and it is less clearly defined than Artificial intelligence

Answer 30

The Neurorobotics Platform, NRP, is a simulation platform that enables you to choose and test different brain models for the robots Neural networks can be connected to simulated robots and run embodiment experiments on a High Performance Computing (HPC) clusters.

Answer 31

British mathematician (1912-1954), widely considered to be the father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence.

Answer 32

Turning suggested that humans use available information as well as reason in order to solve problems to make decisions, so why can't machines do the same thing? In his paper he discussed how to build intelligent machines and how to test their intelligence.

Answer 33

Turing proposed an investigation that he called the 'Imitation Game', but which is now famously called the Turing Test. In Turing's game, there are two channels of communication, A and B, through to a neutral human observer, C: A comes from a computer and B from an average human being, but C has no knowledge of which is which, as both are hidden and communicate through a standard teletype. The job of the computer at A is, in a dialogue with C, to convince her that it is a human being. C is free to ask any questions, or make any remarks, she likes in the dialogue, and to go on for as long as she wants; but if in the end she is unable to tell which is the human and which the computer, then the computer has passed the Turing Test and can be said to be intelligent. For Turing, as for Descartes, the key indicator of intelligence is flexibility of response through language

Answer 34

Behaviorist perspective - intelligence is defined by observable behavior, inner workings or consciousness is not considered Functional equivalence - if a machine behaves indistinguishably from a human, it is intelligent Philosophical implications - raises questions about the nature of mind and consciousness

Answer 35

She translated Luigi Menabrea's paper on the Analytical Engine from French to English, added extensive notes that tripled the length of the original paper, The First Algorithm, Described an algorithm for computing Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine, considered the world first computer programer, Visionary insights, envisioned the machine's potential beyond mere calculation, suggested it could manipulate symbols and create music, art, and literature, introduced ideas of artificial creativity and computational universality

Answer 36

an alternative to the Turing Test, focusing specifically on a machine's ability to generate creative and novel outputs without human intervention. A key aspect of this test is that the AI's output must be original and not derivable from its pre programmed capabilities, thus demonstrating the emergence of true creative abilities and autonomy. The concept of the Lovelace Test was proposed by Selmer Bringsjord, Paul Bello, and David Ferrucci in 2001. It was introduced as a critique of the Turing Test, suggesting a different metric for evaluating machine intelligence, with a specific emphasis on creativity

Answer 37

Turing Test, which evaluates a machine's ability to emulate human conversational behavior, the Lovelace Test assesses creativity in AI by requiring that the AI produce a work (art, literature, music, etc.) that a human could not reasonably believe was generated by a machine.

Answer 38

Turing Test evaluates a machine’s ability to imitate human conversation. BUT does not assess original thought or creativity *Emphasises observable behaviour over internal processes. BUT A machine could pass by deception without true understanding. *Fails to address consciousness and subjective experience. BUT Does not measure innovation or novelty in outputs. *Lovelace Test offers an alternative focusing on creative capability. BUT Encourages development of machines that can produce unexpected results.

Answer 39

By 'machine’ Turing means the digital computer. For Turing, a digital computer is a device with a store, an executive unit and a control. The store will contain a 'book of rules' telling the computer exactly what to do next at each step. It can also be used as a scratchpad for storing data and intermediate results. Computers are discrete state machines in that the machine moves through a series of states, the next state being determined without doubt by the current state and the input the control unit is receiving. If we substitute the more up-to-date terms 'memory' for 'store', 'CPU' for 'executive unit', and 'program' for 'book of rules', we have the modern computer. This is the machine that the founding fathers of AI believed could be programmed to think. The digital computer was at the heart of their project from the start

Answer 40

The automation of activities we associate with human thinking, such as decision-making, problem solving, learning ...

Answer 41

Program designed to mimic the problem-solving skills of a human, first artificial intelligence program, was funded by Research and Development (RAND) corporation. Presented at the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence hosted by John McCarthy (Dartmouth College), Marvin Minsky (MIT), Nathaniel Rochester (IBM)and Claude Shannon (Bell Laboratories) in 1956 →event that initiated AI as a research discipline

Answer 42

Representation- "Intelligent" computer systems contain a model, in some logical mathematical form, of the problem being solved or of their environment. For example, using logical expressions (if... then...) Search - computer systems can find 'intelligent' answers to complex problems by searching among all possible answers for the best one. The process of search will be governed by rules. For example, searching for directions limiting the kilometers and including information about the tolls and traffic conditions.

Answer 43

1956-1970 Lack of computational power: computers couldn’t store enough information or process it fast enough →decline in funding 1965: Moore's law which estimates that the memory and speed of computers doubles every year. 1980: expansion of the algorithmic toolkit and boost of funds →deep learning techniques which allowed computers to learn using experience →expert systems which mimicked the decision making process of a human expert 1990-2000 and beyond: computer storage and processing speed is no longer a problem and surpasses ours needs (computational power) →how Deep Blue was able to defeat Gary Kasparov in 1997 →how Google’s Alpha Go was able to defeat Chinese Go champion, KeJiein 2017

Answer 44

A formal system comprise three components? 1. A set of tokens 2. a starting state 3. a set of rules

Answer 45

- An algorithm consists of a step-by-step list of instructions - an algorithm is a finite process (this means it is guaranteed to finish at some point) - The algorithm should solve any instance of the problem that might arise

Answer 46

Automatic: that works by itself, without any outside intervention (this does NOT mean that the system requires another component, a referee that enforces the rules and ensures the system's algorithms are followed correctly - control unit) Interpreted: the meaning of a token is the thing, or things, in the world that it refers to. They become symbols, standing for real things.

Answer 47

Considering the computer running a program as a formal system: The tokens are the various data structures of the program, distributed across the memory of the machine. These data structures may just be individual bits, or variables, or complex structures such as arrays or objects (or arrays of objects, and so on). The start state is the initialization of these data structures to their starting values, or defaults. The control unit of the computer also sets the program counter to the first instruction in the program. The rules are embodied in the program, a finite algorithm that specifies exactly how the tokens are to be read and written, and in what order these read/write operations are to take place.

Answer 48

1. Work with models of real-world systems 2. Solve a special class of problems called optimization problems

Answer 49

Artificial Intelligence is defined as the ability of a digital computer or computer-controlled robot to perform tasks commonly associated with intelligent beings. In other words, it’s a set of algorithms that can produce results without having to be explicitly instructed to do so An intelligent entity created by humans * Capable of performing tasks intelligently without being explicitly instructed. * Capable of thinking and acting rationally and humanely

Answer 50

A well-defined space A set of rules + data which goes into pattern matching

Answer 51

Weak AI: Weak artificial intelligence is a practical programme that aims to build computer systems that have intelligent behaviour, but are not necessarily based on human mental processes. They are working systems that do clever things and serve as useful tools. Such systems are likely to be quite narrow in their behavioural scope. Strong AI: In strong artificial intelligence, the computer is not only a tool in the study of the mind; rather, the appropriately programmed computer really IS a mind. Strong artificial intelligence looks to imitate human mental processes with the aim of building computer systems that are intelligent in the same way as humans, and may even be sentient in the way that humans are.

Answer 52

Machine Learning - specializes in one area and solves one problem Machine intelligence - refers to a computer that is as smart as a human across the board Machine Consciousness - An intellect that is much smarted than the best human brains in practically every field

Answer 53

This is the most common form of AI that you’d find in the market now.These Artificial Intelligence systems are designed to solve one single problem and would be able to execute a single task really well. By definition, they have narrow capabilities, like recommending a product for an e-commerce user or predicting the weather. This is the only kind of Artificial Intelligence that exists today. They’re able to come close to human functioning in very specific contexts, and even surpass them in many instances, but only excelling in very controlled environments with a limited set of parameters

Answer 54

AGIis still a theoretical concept.It’s defined as AI which has a human-level of cognitive function, across a wide variety of domains such as language processing, image processing, computational functioning and reasoning and so on. We’re still a long way away from building an AGI system. An AGI system would need to comprise of thousands of Artificial Narrow Intelligence systems working in tandem, communicating with each other to mimic human reasoning. Even with the most advanced computing systems and infrastructures, such as Fujitsu’s K or IBM’s Watson, it has taken them 40 minutes to simulate a single second of neuronal activity. This speaks to both the immense complexity and interconnectedness of the human brain, and to the magnitude of the challenge of building an AGI with our current resources.

Answer 55

We’re almost entering into science-fiction territory here, but ASI is seen as the logical progression from AGI.An Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI) system would be able to surpass all human capabilities. This would include decision making, taking rational decisions, and even includes things like making better art and building emotional relationships. Once we achieve Artificial General Intelligence, AI systems would rapidly be able to improve their capabilities and advance into realms that we might not even have dreamed of. While the gap between AGI and ASI would be relatively narrow (some say as little as a nanosecond, because that’s how fast Artificial Intelligence would learn) the long journey ahead of us towards AGI itself makes this seem like a concept that lies far into the future.