Topic 1 Flashcards
What is Negative Feedback?
A process that counteracts changes in the body to maintain homeostasis.
What is the purpose of Negative Feedback?
To keep the body’s internal environment stable by reducing deviations from the set point.
What are the three key components of Negative Feedback?
Receptor, Integrator (Control Center), and Effector.
What is the role of a Receptor in Negative Feedback?
Detects changes in the environment and sends information to the integrator.
What does the Integrator do in Negative Feedback?
Processes information from the receptor and decides the appropriate response.
What is the role of an Effector in Negative Feedback?
Carries out the response directed by the integrator to bring conditions back to the set point.
Explain Negative Feedback in temperature regulation.
- Body temperature rises
- Thermoreceptors detect the increase
- Hypothalamus (integrator) receives the signal
- Sweat glands (effectors) produce sweat to cool the body.
What could happen if a receptor fails to detect a change?
The integrator won’t process the change, so the effector won’t respond, and homeostasis won’t be maintained.
Give another example of Negative Feedback.
Blood glucose regulation: Insulin lowers blood glucose levels when they are too high.
Anatomy
The study of the structure and relationships between body parts.
Physiology
The study of how the body parts function and work together.
Pathophysiology
The study of how disease processes affect the function of the body.
What does Anatomy focus on?
Examines physical structures of the body (e.g., bones, muscles, organs).
What does Physiology focus on?
Looks at how various systems of the body work and interact.
What does Pathophysiology focus on?
Investigates “what happens” when normal physiology goes wrong due to diseases or injuries.
Which field answers “how” the body works?
Physiology
Which field examines the structure of body parts?
Anatomy
Which field combines knowledge of anatomy and physiology to understand disease mechanisms?
Pathophysiology
Organism Level
The human body as a whole. All systems work together to maintain life and health.
Organ System Level
Groups of organs working together to perform specific functions. Example: Digestive system, circulatory system.
Organ Level
Organs are made up of different types of tissues working together for specific functions. Example: Heart, liver
Tissue Level
Tissues are groups of similar cells that perform a specific function. Example: Muscle tissue, nervous tissue.
Cellular Level
Cells are the smallest living units, performing various functions necessary for life. Example: Blood cells, nerve cells.
Chemical Level
Atoms and molecules, the simplest level, forming the building blocks of cells. Example: Proteins, lipids.
How do Organ Systems interact?
Organ systems work together to maintain homeostasis. Example: The respiratory and circulatory systems work together to oxygenate blood and remove carbon dioxide.
How do Organs interact within an Organ System?
Each organ has a specific role that contributes to the organ system’s overall function. Example: The stomach and intestines work together in the digestive system to process food and absorb nutrients.
How do Tissues interact within an Organ?
Different tissues (e.g., muscle, connective, epithelial) work together to ensure an organ can perform its functions. Example: The heart’s muscle tissue pumps blood, while its connective tissue supports its structure.
How do Cells interact within Tissue?
Similar cells group together to perform a common function within a tissue. Example: Nerve cells transmit signals in nervous tissue.
How do Molecules interact within a Cell?
Molecules combine to form organelles, which are specialized structures within a cell that perform specific functions. Example: Mitochondria produce energy for the cell.
What is Positive Feedback and can you provide an example?
Positive feedback is a process that amplifies a response in a system, leading to an increased change. An example is the release of oxytocin during childbirth. Oxytocin increases uterine contractions, which in turn stimulates more oxytocin release, enhancing the contractions further.
Describe the molecular structure and importance of Water.
Water () consists of two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to one oxygen atom. It acts as a solvent, participates in chemical reactions, and helps regulate temperature.
Identify a proton or electron on a molecule.
A proton is a positively charged particle in the nucleus. An electron is a negatively charged particle that orbits the nucleus.
Identify the difference between a Covalent vs Hydrogen vs Ionic Bond.
Covalent: Atoms share electrons.
Hydrogen: Weak bond between hydrogen and electronegative atom.
Ionic: Transfer of electrons creating charged ions.
Covalent
Atoms share electrons
Hydrogen
Weak bond between hydrogen and electronegative atom
Ionic
Transfer of electrons creating charged ions
Describe enzyme, protein, carbohydrate, lipids, nucleic acids, phosphoprotein, glycoproteins, lipoprotein, phospholipid, and a substrate.
Enzyme: Protein that catalyzes reactions.
Protein: Polymer of amino acids.
Carbohydrate: Sugar molecules (e.g., glucose).
Lipids: Fats, oils.
Nucleic Acids: DNA, RNA.
Phosphoprotein: Protein with phosphate.
Glycoproteins: Protein with carbohydrate.
Lipoprotein: Protein with lipid.
Phospholipid: Major cell membrane component.
Substrate: Molecule an enzyme acts on.
Enzyme
Protein that catalyzes reactions.
Protein
Polymer of amino acids.
Carbohydrate
Sugar molecules (e.g., glucose)
Lipids
Fats, oils
Nucleic Acids
DNA, RNA
Phosphoprotein
Protein with phosphate
Glycoproteins
Protein with carbohydrate
Lipoprotein
Protein with lipid
Phospholipid
Major cell membrane component
Substrate
Molecule an enzyme acts on
Describe how carbohydrates are stored in the body.
Stored as glycogen in liver and muscles.
Monosaccharides
Single sugar unit (e.g., glucose).
Disaccharides
Two sugar units (e.g., sucrose)
Polysaccharides
Many sugar units (e.g., starch).
Describe the molecular formula of a Carbohydrate.
Cn(H2O)n
Triglycerides
Glycerol + 3 fatty acids.
Nucleic Acids
Nucleotide bases, sugar, phosphate.
Proteoglycans
Protein core + glycosaminoglycan chains.
HDL
High-density lipoprotein, “good” cholesterol.
LDL
Low-density lipoprotein, “bad” cholesterol.
Describe the importance and chemical structure of ATP in the body.
ATP (C10H16N5O13P3) provides energy for cellular processes. Structure: adenine base, ribose sugar, three phosphate groups.
Describe the types of bonds that attract water molecules together.
Hydrogen bonds attract water molecules.
Dehydration Synthesis
Bonds molecules by removing water
Hydrolysis
Breaks bonds by adding water.
Explain pH and its importance in physiology, and which element pH is determined by.
pH measures hydrogen ion concentration; vital for enzyme activity. Determined by H+ ions.
Alkalemia
Blood pH > 7.45
Acidosis
Blood pH < 7.35
Describe a buffer.
A buffer resists pH changes by neutralizing acids/bases.
Oxidation
Loses electrons.
Reduction
Gains electrons.
The steps of cellular respiration
Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, Electron Transport Chain.
anaerobic respiration
No oxygen, occurs in cytoplasm, produces lactate + ATP.
Aerobic respiration.
Requires oxygen, occurs in mitochondria, produces CO₂ + H₂O + ATP
Describe the steps of Aerobic Respiration. (Glycolysis, Krebs Citric Acid Cycle, Electron Transport Chain).
- Glycolysis: Glucose to pyruvate.
- Krebs Cycle: Pyruvate to CO₂.
- Electron Transport Chain: Produces ATP.
What is the role of NADH in the Citric Acid Cycle.
NADH carries electrons to the Electron Transport Chain, producing ATP.
Describe the stage of respiration that generates the most ATP.
Electron Transport Chain.
Describe ATP synthase and its importance in producing ATP.
ATP synthase produces ATP by allowing protons to flow across a membrane.
Explain the differences between catabolic vs anabolic metabolism, and exergonic vs endergonic reactions.
Catabolic: Breaks down molecules, releases energy.
Anabolic: Builds molecules, consumes energy.
Exergonic: Releases energy.
Endergonic: Requires energy.
