Top 50 Topics Flashcards
Ethics in research
Belmont review
• Respect for persons: we recognize the personal dignity and autonomy of individuals, and we should provide special protection of those persons with diminished autonomy.
• Beneficence: we have an obligation to protect persons from harm by maximizing anticipated benefits and minimizing possible risks of harm
• Justice: the benefits and burdens of research should be distributed fairly
Effect Size
Effect size evaluated which treatment had stronger effect
• A statistic that compares the effects of different treatment interventions across
studies even though the studies used different types of outcome measures.
• Helps us report group differences even if there is no other statistical support for differences
• .2= low; .5= moderate; .8= strong
Hypothesis Testing
• What is really responsible for the change in the dependent variable? Is it due to our intervention or is it due to sampling error, measurement bias, or counselor bias, or some other threat to validity?
• We are always trying to eliminate competing hypothesis, so we have two rival hypothesis: the research hypothesis and the null hypothesis
When the change in the dependent variable is largely due to the independent variable or treatment, then this also means that sampling error was low.
• When sampling error is low, then the relationship between DV and IV is statistically significant
• Testing for statistical significance means assessing the probability that the null hypothesis is true. In other words, testing for statistical significance means evaluating whether it is true that the IV had no effect on the DV.
• The goal is typically to reject the null hypothesis, because we believe that the null hypothesis is not true, or we believe it false.
• The goal is to support the research hypothesis, because we believe it is true.
Research hypothesis (H1)
is a tentative and testable prediction about how the independent variable will cause or explain changes in the dependent variable
Null hypothesis (Ho)
• is a rival to the research hypothesis: predicts that there is no relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable
(DV) explained by the independent variable (IV). The null hypothesis asserts that the relationship between the IV and DV is explained by sampling error. A true relationship does not exist in the population.
Type I Error
rejecting a true null hypothesis. Sampling error is why we rejected the null. We determine that there are group differences when, in fact, there aren’t group differences. We determine that change in the DV is due to the IV, but it is due to sampling error
• Usually, there is a 5% chance that we may make this error, which means that if we run 100 studies, then there is a chance that 5 of these studies will yield desired and expected results by chance alone.
Type II Error
failing to reject a false null hypothesis. We determine that there are no group differences, but there really are. We determine that there is no effect on the DV, but there really is. It is like a false negative: the test states you are not pregnant, but in fact you are.
Significance Levels
• When we can conclude that sampling error might has less than 5% chance of playing a role in the change in the DV, then we have statistical significance. When we can conclude that group differences are due to the IV and less than 5% due to sampling error, then we have statistical significance
o Symbol: p< .05 (this reads: probability is less than point O 5)
• Level of significance is the point at which we can reject the null hypothesis,
determining that there are group differences (effects on the DV).
• But when we reject the null, there is some error involved – 5% chance that we
incorrectly reject a true null hypothesis… or commit a Type I Error.
• In other words, significance level is that point at which we, prior to conducting the analyses, predict that there will be an effect on the dependent variable that can be explained or caused by the independent variable. This will support our research hypothesis, suggesting that it is true and reject our null hypothesis. We can say that there is less than 5% probability that the effect was due to random chance or sampling error.
• If p > .10 then there is only a greater than 10% chance that the null is true.
Steps in a Test of Significance
• Choose the null hypothesis (Ho) and the alternative hypothesis (H1)
• Design the test to assess the strength of the evidence against Ho. H1 is a
statement of the acceptable alternative if the evidence enables rejection of Ho.
• Choose the significance level, a statement of how much evidence against Ho will be accepted as decisive.
• Choose the test statistic on which the test will be based. This is a statistic that measures how well the data conform to Ho.
• Find the p-value for the observed data. If the p-value is less than or equal to the level of significance, the test is statistically significant at the chosen level of significance.
• If Ho is rejected (H1 accepted) when in fact Ho is true, this is a TYPE I error. If Ho is accepted (H1 rejected) when in fact H1 is true, this is a TYPE II error.
Measures of central tendency
Mean: average
Median: midpoint
Mode: most
Medical family therapy
Medical family therapy was first coined the 1990s by Susan McDaniel Jerry Hepworth and William Doherty
He biopsychosocial approach to families with health problems. The book talked about the role of family therapist who are in the medical or healthcare settings used to treat chronic and/or, potentially life-threatening illnesses, illnesses affect not only the individual, but the entire family system.
Mental status exam
Used to evaluate clients. Current mental functioning information can be gathered information over the course of an interview assessment, or formally through direct questions.
Elements of the mental status exam appearance how does a client look
attitude is the client cooperative resistant fearful?
behavior. What is the clients activity level
Mood/affect what is the clients prevailing mood?
Speech is the client understandable
Thought process is the clients thought process circumstantial flight of ideas, poverty of thought
Perception is the client experiencing hallucinations are illusions
Cognition is the client alert and oriented
Insight
Judgment
