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Biol 130 > Tissues and Cell Communities > Flashcards

Tissues and Cell Communities Flashcards

1
Q

What is the model system used in unit 8

A

the intestine

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2
Q

What are the 4 types of animal tissues

A

epithelium, connective tissue, smooth muscle, neural

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3
Q

What is the cytoskeleton

A

a network of fibres that form scaffolding within the cytoplasm

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4
Q

Why is the cytoskeleton important

A

determines the shape of the cell, the position of organelles, allows movement within the cell, and the movement of the cell itself

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5
Q

How is the cytoskeleton different than our skeleton

A

cytoskeleton is dynamic, its constantly being reorganized
it serves as both the muscle and bone of the cell

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6
Q

Do prokaryotes have cytoskeletons?

A

originally no, but recent advancements have shown that the elements of cytoskeletons are observed in prokaryotes

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7
Q

What are intermediate filaments

A

filaments of one cell connect at the walls to the filaments of the neighbouring cell

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8
Q

What connects the intermediate filaments between cells

A

desmosomes

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9
Q

What do intermediates provide in relation to structure

A

structural strength

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10
Q

What makes them different from the other two types of filament

A

they’re not dynamic, unlike the other two

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11
Q

Provide an example of what would happen if cells were stretched out

A

intermediate filaments would keep the cells held together and maintain a certain level of structure

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12
Q

What is the physical makeup of intermediate filaments

A

long, twisted strands

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13
Q

What are the physical components of intermediate filaments

A

N-terminal head, C-terminal tail, and an a-helical rod domain

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14
Q

Central rod domains are similar in size to __________

A

AAs

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15
Q

Intermediate filaments consist of many different __________

A

proteins

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16
Q

What are the three classes of cytoplasmic intermediate filaments

A

keratins, vimentin, and neurofilaments

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17
Q

What is the one class of nuclear intermediate filaments

A

nuclear laming

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18
Q

Which is the most diverse class of intermediate filaments

A

keratins

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19
Q

How can keratin be used to classify tumours with respect to the original cell type

A

if metastatic (not originated with original cell type) & epithelial in origin, the type of keratin can determine the type of cancer and where the cancer came from

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20
Q

The keratinized layer on the skin is where

A

the dead flattened cells of the top layer are packed with keratin

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21
Q

Intermediate filaments support the _________ ___________

A

nuclear envelope

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22
Q

How do intermediate filaments support the nuclear envelope

A

nuclear lamina is found between the nuclear envelope and the chromatin within the nucleus, and is involved in DNA replication and mitosis

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23
Q

What are microtubules

A

thickest of the three filament types and project from the core of the cell

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24
Q

What are microtubules essential for

A

organizing roles in all eukaryotic cells by creating a system of tracks for the movement of vesicles, while also anchoring organelles in place and forming mitotic spindle for mitosis

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25
Q

What small structures do microtubules form on tissues

A

cilia and villi

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26
Q

What are microtubule organizing centers functions

A

structures from which microtubules originate and radiate outward

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27
Q

What is the microtubule organizing centre in animal cells

A

the centrosome (2 centrioles)

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28
Q

What are microtubules made of

A

Tubulin
- both A and B, bound to each other tightly in a cylindrical formation to form hollow tubes

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29
Q

What is a protofilament

A

one long strand of A and B tubulin dimers
- microtubules are made up of many protofilaments arranged together

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30
Q

Are microtubules dynamic or not

A

they are dynamic
- growing and shrinking subunits are added and removed

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31
Q

Which end of the protofilament are dimers added to

A

the plus end

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32
Q

What is the microtubule instability

A

when they grow, they quickly shrink back to the core of the cell and repeat this process

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33
Q

How can microtubules polarize a cell

A

the microtubules eject from the organizing centre at the nucleus, and attach themselves to capping proteins which pushes the walls of the cell outward

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34
Q

How are microtubules important in mitosis

A

microtubules are crucial for moving chromosomes around during cell division
- they cast out and reach chromosomes hooking up the essential kineticore structure needed to divide
- these microtubules also pull the chromosomes apart to opposing ends of the cell during metaphase

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35
Q

How do microtubules provide “rails”

A

for example in a neuron, motor proteins are able to travel along the microtubules via inward and outward transport

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36
Q

What are motor proteins

A

a class of “motors” that can move along a suitable surface (like a microtubule)
- powered by the hydrolysis of ATP
- convert chemical energy into mechanical work

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37
Q

What are the microtubule motors

A

dyneins (move toward minus end) and kinesics (move toward plus end)

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38
Q

What are the globular heads on motor proteins

A

act as the “feet” and carry out the walking motion

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39
Q

What are the tails on motor proteins

A

the “body” of the motor proteins

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40
Q

What is anterograde transport

A

forward (+ direction) carried out by kinesins

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41
Q

What is retrograde transport

A

backward (- direction) carried out by dyneins

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42
Q

How is cargo carried by the motor proteins

A

the tails (body) of the motor proteins attach to the accompanying cargo and carry it to where it needs to go

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43
Q

______ and ______ contain stable microtubules

A

cilia and flagella

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44
Q

What is the ‘9 + 2’ array

A

in the cilia/flagellum, there are 9 microtubule pairs seen in cross-section around the perimeter, and 1 pair (2 microtubules) in the centre

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45
Q

bacterial vs eukaryotic flagellum

A

bacterial: made of flagellin, move out by rotation, not surrounded by membrane
eukaryotic: made of tubulin, moved by swimming motions, surrounded by plasma membrane

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46
Q

What are microfilaments

A

most concentrated directly under plasma membrane and very thin compared to microtubules

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47
Q

What small structure are microfilaments found in

A

microvilli

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48
Q

What are the functions of microfilaments

A

cell shape/support
cell movement

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49
Q

What is another term for microfilaments

A

actin filaments

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50
Q

What are the characteristics of microfilaments

A

smallest in diameter, “threads”, polymer of actin subunits, has + and - ends similar to microtubules, and are the most abundant proteins within animal cells

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51
Q

What is the most abundant protein in animal cells

A

actin

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52
Q

What end do the actin molecules get added to

A

the plus end

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53
Q

Actins are dynamic or not dynamic

A

dynamic - they grow and shrink with the addition/removal of actin molecules

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54
Q

What is the actin motor

A

myosin
- muscle contraction, vesicle and organelle transport, cell motility, cytokinesis
- originally discovered in muscle cells but now known to be in all eukaryotic cells

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55
Q

Actin and cell movement without flagella

A

amoebae hunting prey, white blood cells hunting prey, advancing tip of developing neutron

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56
Q

what are the basic steps of actin motility

A

cell pushes out protrusion(s) at leading edge
protrusions stick to surface
rest of cell drags itself forward

57
Q

What’re the types of protrusions seen in the case of actin motility

A

lamelli podium = sheet foot
pseudo podium = false foot
filo podia = thin, stick protrusions

58
Q

Actin ____________ at plus end protrudes lamellipodium

A

polymerization

59
Q

_______ motor proteins slide actin filaments

A

myosin

60
Q

Actin acts with myosin to generate cell ___________

A

movement

61
Q

It is extremely rare for the plasma membrane to be the only thing surrounding the cell, what are examples of others

A

bacteria, algae, fungi, plants, etc.: cell wall
animals: ECM

62
Q

What is the ECM

A

extra cellular matrix: cross-linked network of filaments that resist stretching and straining forces - provides strength
semi solid gelatinous matrix that resist compression (‘concrete’)

63
Q

How is the ECM important in plants

A

cells are weak and fragile if they’re separated from their walls (called protoplasts)
- they have no intermediate filaments
- the cell wall provides the plant cell with a type of ECM

64
Q

What are primary and secondary plant cell walls

A

primary: secreted as cells are growing, and relatively thin compared to the other
secondary: in mature cells, only some cell types

65
Q

How does cellulose play a role in the cell wall

A

microfibrils form network filled in by gel-forming pectins

66
Q

What are pectins

A

a structural acid found in the cell wall, as well as primary and middle lamella

67
Q

What is the middle lamella

A

gelatinous pectins that “glue” cells together - found between the primary and secondary walls

68
Q

Where are pectins made and processed

A

made in the ER, processed in the Golgi

69
Q

Where is cellulose made

A

in the plasma membrane, by protein complexes containing cellulose synthase enzymes

70
Q

When is the secondary cell wall produced

A

once the cell has stopped growing

71
Q

Characteristics of the secondary cell wall

A

much thicker, cells become rigid with the addition of this wall and are only found in certain types
- composition of this wall depends on the role in the plant
- has a high cellulose content
- waterproofing via waxes
- protects against pathogens

72
Q

How does the orientation of microfibrils impact expansion of a cell

A

the direction of microfibrils determines which direction a cell can grow/expand

73
Q

Cellulose synthase complexes are otherwise known as

A

rosette complexes

74
Q

Microtubules provide the template for _______ synthesis

A

cellulose

75
Q

What is the structural polysaccharide in plants

A

cellulose

76
Q

what is the physical makeup of cellulose

A

polymer of B-glucose, joined by B-1,4 linkages

77
Q

What is the most abundant organic molecule on earth

A

cellulose

78
Q

How is connective tissue distinguishable from the other 3 types

A

large amount of ECM

79
Q

Rather than a polysaccharide, tensile strength in connective tissue is provided by ______

A

protein

80
Q

what is the fibrous component of ECM in animal connective tissue

A

collagen

81
Q

what is the most abundant protein in mammals

A

collagen

82
Q

What are derivative amino acids in collagen

A

amino acids not directly inserted during translation (hydroxyproline - derived from proline)

83
Q

Where do the hydroxylation reactions of derivative amnio acids occur

A

in the ER lumen

84
Q

What is the cofactor that is required by the derivative amino acids

A

ascorbic acid (vitamin C)

85
Q

What does a lack of vitamin C do to the body

A

causes scurvy, a connective tissue disorder where the cofactor of the derivative amino acids isn’t present, so collagen is not properly composed

86
Q

What is the physical makeup of collagen fibres

A

collection of wound triple-stranded collagen molecules brought together in a fibril form

87
Q

What is denatured collagen comparable to

A

gelatin! so if you don’t have properly composed collagen, your skin is super stretchy

88
Q

What are proteoglycans

A

proteins that are heavily glycosylated; the gel filer in the basement membrane of a cell

89
Q

What are GAGs in relation to proteoglycans

A

proteoglycans are core proteins attached to chains of GAGs
- GAGs are made up of repeating disaccharide units

90
Q

Are proteoglycans hydrophobic or hydrophilic

A

hydrophilic (attracts water)

91
Q

What are the functions of proteaglycans

A

resists compression, forms pores for passage of molecules in ECM, and influence cell migration through ECM

92
Q

How does ECM connect to the cytoskeleton

A

via integrins

93
Q

What are integrins

A

groupings of transmembrane proteins that anchor the cell to the ECM

94
Q

What is fibronectin

A

provides the link between integrin dimers and ECM fibrils

95
Q

How do integrins actually attach to both the ECM and the cytoskeleton

A

the fibronectin attached to the collagen fibres attaches to the integrin dimers on the plasma membrane. on the inner side of the plasma membrane, the integrin dimer ends are attached to adaptor proteins, which are attached to actin filaments of the cytoskeleton

96
Q

What are some examples of the sheet types that epithelial cells can form

A

columnar, squamous, cuboidal, and stratified

97
Q

Is there any ECM between epithelial cells?

A

NO - they are tightly packed and held together by tight junctions to eliminate space between each cell

98
Q

What are the types of cell-cell junctions in epithelium

A

tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions

99
Q

What are tight junctions

A

previously mentioned in unit, tight junctions are sealing strands of occluding and claudin proteins that eliminate ECM space between cells

100
Q

As a result tight junctions and the elimination of ECM, material must go ________ rather than ________ cells

A

through, between

101
Q

What real life object can be used in comparison to tight junctions

A

a fence

102
Q

What are examples of tight epithelium

A

gut, some blood vessels

103
Q

What are adherens junctions

A

invaginate epithelial cells by an organized tightening, so the cells curve down (like a vesicle would) and eventually, some of the cells are completely broken off to form a tube-like structure

104
Q

What real life objects can adherens junctions be compared to

A

a belt

105
Q

What are desmosomes

A

provide strong adhesion between cells - eg. desmosomes are responsible for keeping the cell connected to the basal lamina

106
Q

How could disease be caused in the malfunctioning of desmosomes

A

epithelial cells would not be fused to the basal lamina and would lift, causing chronic wounds

107
Q

What are gap junctions

A

connective passages made up of connexion subunits between cells that allow very small molecules to pass over in a non-selective manner

108
Q

Where are gap junctions found in the human body

A

in nearly all epithelia and many other tissues

109
Q

What do gap junctions allow for in the cell

A

allows cell coordination and collaboration, with SOME ability to open/close with signals

110
Q

What are plasmodesmata

A

channels between plant cells

111
Q

Explain the characteristics of plasmodesmata

A

like gap junctions in animals: connect cytoplasm of adjacent cells
unlike gap junctions in animals: plasmodesmata are lined with plasma membrane, and they can dilate to regulate the movement of molecules in/out

112
Q

What are the three differentiations of cell types

A

cell communication, selective cell-cell adhesion, and cell memory

113
Q

What happens when a cell can no longer divide

A

it is terminally differentiated

114
Q

What are stem cells

A

undifferentiated cells found throughout the body that divide to provide supply of some types of terminally differentiated cells
- replenish dying cells
- repair damaged tissues

115
Q

What are the two properties of stem cells

A

self-renewal: ability to go through numerous divisions while remaining undifferentiated
multi potency: ability to generate progeny of several distinct cell types

116
Q

If stem cells are mutlipotent, what would unipotency be

A

restriction to a single cell type

117
Q

Can stem cells carry out functions of specialized differentiated cells

A

NO

118
Q

In an epithelial cell, where are the stem cells located

A

at the base of each crypt

119
Q

Explain the organization of cell types along a villus

A

the base of crypt = stem cells and terminally differentiated secretory cells
walls of crypt = dividing precursor cells and differentiated precursor cells
walls of villi = terminally differentiated epithelial cells

120
Q

Where are stem cells found in skin cells

A

the basal cell layer (lowest layer of the epidermis)

121
Q

All the blood cell types descend from ______________ stem cells

A

hematopoietic

122
Q

What stem cell is the “stemiest”

A

hematopoietic stem cells

123
Q

What is the difference between unipotent, pluripotent, and multipoint

A

unipotent = only gives rise to one cell type (but still a stem cell because it has self-renewal)
multipotent = gives rise to cells limited within a specific tissue type
pluripotent = gives rise to all types of cell in an organism

124
Q

What is an example of a pluripotent stem cell

A

embryonic!

125
Q

How to stem cells form organoids in culture

A

types of cells are reprogrammed to become de-differentiated (ie. skin cell) and used in culture to create differentiated organoids such as kidney and intestinal organoids

126
Q

What are the applications of adult stem cell-derived organoids (normal cell)

A

physiology and disease modelling

127
Q

What are the applications of adult stem cell-derived organoids ( tumour cell)

A

drug screening, bio banking, and disease modelling

128
Q

When do tumours form

A

when one or more cells begin uncontrolled division

129
Q

Benign vs malignant

A

benign = non-invasive and non-cancerous
malignant = invasive and cancerous (spread throughout the body via blood/lymph and can initiate secondary tumours)

130
Q

Loss of adhesion in the connective tissues leads to what in relation to cancer

A

loss of adhesion = metastasis

131
Q

What is dominant mutation vs recessive mutation

A

dominant = gain of function
recessive = loss of function

132
Q

What happens if the proto-oncogene in one gene is mutated

A

a hyperactive oncogene is produced

133
Q

What happens if the tumour suppressor in one gene is mutated? What happens if both are mutated?

A
  1. no effect (higher risk for cancer?)
  2. complete loss of tumour suppressor gene activity
134
Q

What mutations are often found in cancer cells

A

somatic mutations

135
Q

What are some characteristics of cancer cells

A

not dependant on signalling, less likely to go through apoptosis, can divide indefinitely, genetically unstable, invasive

136
Q

How do polyps turn into cancer

A
  1. inactivation of both tumour suppressor genes
  2. one copy of photo-oncogene activated
  3. sequential inactivation of another set of tumour suppressors
  4. sequential inactivation of more tumour suppressor genes
  5. metastatis
137
Q

What is the most common classification of cancer

A

carcinoma - epithelial

138
Q

What are other classifications of cancer aside from carcinoma

A

sarcoma (from mesenchymal cells)
hematopoietic (leukemia, lymphoma, etc.)

Biol 130 (5 decks)

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