tillämpad ny Flashcards
What are the data in psychology?
The data in psychology are observations of behavior.
How do facts and constructs differ?
How do facts and constructs differ?
Facts are those events that we can observe directly and repeatedly; each scientific discipline has its particular kinds of facts.
inferred events, such as gravity, electricity, intelligence, memory, and anxiety, are all rational ideas constructed by the researcher. not surprisingly, such ideas are called constructs. Scientists use constructs as if they exist in fact and as if they really have a relationship with observable events.
What is reification of a construct?
What is reification of a construct?
Sometimes we use a construct so frequently that we lose sight of its analogical nature and begin to think it is a fact. For example, some people may believe there really is an id, an ego, or a superego inside each of us; these constructs take on a reality that they were never meant to have. Confusing a construct for a fact is a logical error known as reification of a construct.
Explain the two ways in which constructs relate to facts.
Explain the two ways in which constructs relate to facts.
Constructs are based on facts and are used to predict new facts.
What are the basic assumptions that scientists accept about the universe?
What are the basic assumptions that scientists accept about the universe?
A physical universe exists.
There is randomness and thus unpredictability in the universe, but it is primarily an orderly and predictable system.
We can discover the principles of this orderly universe through scientific research.
Knowledge of the universe is always incomplete. new knowledge will alter current ideas and theories. Therefore, all scientific assumptions, knowledge, and theories are tentative.
What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning?
What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning?
Going from empirical observations to constructs is inductive reasoning; going from constructs to predictions is deductive reasoning.
What is a theory, and how is it useful in science?
What is a theory, and how is it useful in science?
Svar : A theory is a formalized set of concepts that summarizes and organizes observations and inferences, provides tentative explanations for phenomena, and provides the foundation for making predictions.
Inductive, deductive, and functional have the same goals: organizing knowledge, predicting new observations, and explaining relationships among events. Good theories put it all together—the facts and the constructs—in an organized whole for the scientists, making it possible to move ahead in the main task of science: understanding nature.
What is the difference between inductive and deductive theories?
What is the difference between inductive and deductive theories?
Deductive reasoning usually follows steps. First, there is a premise, then a second premise, and finally an inference. Example “All men are mortal. Harold is a man. Therefore, Harold is mortal.” For deductive reasoning to be sound, the hypothesis must be correct.
Inductive reasoning is the opposite of deductive reasoning. Basically, there is data, then conclusions are drawn from the data. We make many observations, discern a pattern, make a generalization, and infer an explanation or a theory. An example of inductive logic is, “The coin I pulled from the bag is a penny. That coin is a penny. A third coin from the bag is a penny. Therefore, all the coins in the bag are pennies.”
What is a model, and how is it used in science?
What is a model, and how is it used in science?
A model is a description or analogy that helps scientists to understand something usually unseen or complex. Models are somewhat less developed than formal theories and are sometimes referred to as “mini-theories.” Picture a model airplane. It has the form and many characteristics of a real airplane, such as wings and rudder. Although these characteristics correspond to those of a real airplane, the model is not an exact replica. It is usually smaller, does not have all the working parts, and is constructed of balsa wood or plastic instead of metal alloys or carbon fiber.
Models represent reality; they do not duplicate it. Models are useful because constructing and examining a model helps scientists to organize knowledge and hypotheses about the reality represented by the model.
Distinguish between observation and inference.
Distinguish between observation and inference.
Observation means an act of monitoring, something, i.e. objects, units, persons or anything else, by using senses. In this process, the observer stays at the place of the survey and observes the objects under consideration and notes down the observations himself.
Conversely, Inference refers to the conclusion drawn based on the facts and evidence available, i.e. deductions are made as per the research made.
The act of carefully watching or examining a person or object when something is happening is known as an observation.
An act of deriving rational conclusion from known facts or circumstances is called inference. Observation is objective while inference is subjective.
Observation is what one perceives or notices. On the other hand, the inference is an explanation or assumption of what one has perceived or seen.
Observation is based on hands-on experience. Unlike inference, which relies on the facts that are already known.
Observation implies attentive monitoring of the subject under study. As opposed to inference, logically deducing a conclusion by reasoning.
Observation is an act of obtaining information without questioning respondents. As against this inference involves taking decisions about the collected information.
Observations are the facts of research, whereas inferences are inductive leaps beyond the observations.
Why should we judge theories on both their usefulness and their accuracy?
Why should we judge theories on both their usefulness and their accuracy?
Many technically incorrect theories nevertheless make accurate predictions in many situations and therefore are useful in these situations.
What is meant by falsifiability in science?
What is meant by falsifiability in science?
If there is no outcome that would disprove the theory, it means that the theory can explain any possible outcome; a theory that can explain any possible outcome is a theory that says that “anything is possible” and that “there is no way to predict what will happen.” Theories that cannot make specific predictions about what will happen are useless in science because they cannot be tested. Once you make a specific prediction (e.g., that A will happen but not B), you open yourself up to the possibility that, when tested, the prediction will be wrong and will therefore falsify your theory.
two main dimensions of the model of research ?
- What are the two main dimensions of the model of research presented in this section?
The phases of research and the levels of constraint.
Name the phases of research.
name the phases of research.
(1) Ideagenerating
(2) Problem definition
(3) Procedures design
(4) observation
(5) data analysis
(6) Interpretation
(7) communication
Define levels of constraint.
levels of constraint
Naturalistic Observation
Observing participants in their natural environment. The reasercher should do nothing to limit or change the environent or the behavior of the participants.
Case study reasearch
Moving the participants into a moderately limiting environment, intervening to a slight degree, and observing the participants responses.
Correlational Research
Quantifying the strength of the relationship between two variables. The reaserchers must carefully define and precisely follow the measurement procedures.
Differential Reaserch
Comparing two or more preexisting groups of participants. The setting is usually highly constrained, and the measurement procededures must be carefully defined and precisely followed.
Experimental Research Assigning Participants randomly to groups and then testing each group under a different condition
What is the major difference between differential and experimental research?
What is the major difference between differential and experimental research?
Differential Research involves comparing two or more groups of participants, like males and females, democrats and republicans, third graders and sixth graders. Whatever we measure in these groups must be measured in exactly the same way in each group; that is, the settings and observational procedures must be constrained across groups
Experimental research compares the performance of participants under different conditions. A major distinction between differential and experimental research is the way that researchers assign participants to the groups or conditions. In experimental research, the researcher randomly assigns participants to conditions. In differential research, the researcher assigns participants based on a preexisting variable (such as social class or health status) that is outside the researcher’s control.
In which phase(s) of research do we need to consider ethical issues?
In which phase(s) of research do we need to consider ethical issues?
Ethical issues need to be anticipated and addressed in the procedures-design phase before proceeding any further in the research. We must also remain sensitive to ethical issues throughout the research.
Who bears the responsibility for ethical conduct of a research project?
Who bears the responsibility for ethical conduct of a research project?
At the heart of research ethics lies the personal responsibility of each researcher to conduct his or her work so as to enhance science and human welfare—that is, to conduct the research in an ethical manner.
What are the main sources of research questions?
What are the main sources of research questions? S. 79
Svar: The main sources of research questions are your own interests and the research of other investigators.
A question is a problem in need of a solution or answer. What are the causes of child abuse? Why are some things difficult to remember? How can we get drunk drivers off the road? Why do some people become depressed? Questions are everywhere; all you have to do is observe and be curious.
The most powerful questions often come from our everyday lives. For example, you might be interested in emotions or memory, or wonder about yourself or your family members. You may be puzzled by something you observe and ask, “Why did that happen?” Any of these interests or observations can serve as a starting point for research.
How do you distinguish between applied and basic research?
How do you distinguish between applied and basic research?
Svar : Applied research is designed to solve specific problems, whereas basic research is interested in finding new knowledge, without a specific application.
Much of the research in psychology is applied research—direct attempts to find solutions to practical problems. Questions for applied research in psychology are relatively easy for students to generate.
Basic research seeks to increase scientific understanding of nature without immediate concern for practical goals. knowledge is what is sought in basic research, but basic research findings are important foundations for later applied research. For example, a researcher might use information from basic research on children’s language development to create training methods for children with language deficiencies.
What is a variable?
What is a variable?
Variable is any set of events with different values. Height is a variable because organisms and inanimate objects have different heights. Gender is a variable because there are more than one gender. Behavior is a variable because there are many possible behaviors. Any specific behavior, such as aggression, can be a variable because it occurs in different forms and degrees.
