TIG108 - Evolutionär Psykologi - 2024-10-29

Question 1

Inheritance

Answer 1

Definition: Inheritance is the passing of traits from parents to offspring through genetic material.

Explanation: Imagine a family recipe passed down through generations. Each cook adds their own twist, but the core ingredients remain the same. Similarly, genes are passed down, creating similarities between family members, but with variations.

Question 2

Variation

Answer 2

Definition: Variation refers to the differences in traits among individuals within a population.

Explanation: Imagine a family portrait: each member has unique features, like hair color or height. This is variation within a family, just like differences in beak size among finches are variation within a species.

Question 3

Mutation

Answer 3

Definition: Mutation is a permanent alteration in the DNA sequence of an organism, which can result in changes to the organism’s traits.

Explanation: Imagine a recipe for a cake. A mutation is like a typo in the recipe, changing an ingredient or instruction. This change can result in a slightly different cake, just like a mutation can lead to a slightly different organism.

Question 4

Recombination

Answer 4

Definition: Recombination is the process by which genetic material from two parents is combined to create a new, unique genetic makeup in their offspring.

Explanation: Imagine shuffling a deck of cards: each parent’s genes are like a deck, and recombination is like shuffling those decks together to create a new, unique hand for their child.

Question 5

Adaptation

Answer 5

Definition: Adaptation is the process by which organisms evolve traits that increase their survival and reproduction in a specific environment.

Explanation: Imagine a bird with a beak perfectly shaped for cracking open seeds. This beak is an adaptation that helps the bird survive and reproduce in an environment where seeds are abundant.

Question 6

Selection

Answer 6

Definition: Selection is the process by which organisms with traits better suited to their environment survive and reproduce more successfully, passing those advantageous traits to their offspring.

Explanation: Imagine a group of birds with different beak shapes. If only seeds of a certain size are available, birds with beaks best suited for those seeds will eat more, survive longer, and have more offspring, leading to a population with more of those beak shapes.

Question 7

Natural Selection

Answer 7

Definition: Natural selection is the process by which organisms with traits better suited to their environment survive and reproduce more successfully, passing those advantageous traits to their offspring.

Explanation: Imagine a group of birds with different beak shapes. If only seeds with hard shells are available, birds with strong beaks will survive and reproduce more, passing on their strong beak genes to their offspring. Over time, the population will be dominated by birds with strong beaks.

Question 8

Sexual Selection

Answer 8

Definition: Sexual selection is a type of natural selection where individuals with traits that increase their chances of mating and producing offspring are favored, leading to the evolution of these traits.

Explanation: Imagine a peacock with a magnificent tail. It’s not the most practical for survival, but it attracts mates, increasing his chances of passing on his genes. This is sexual selection: traits that boost mating success, even if they’re not directly beneficial for survival, can evolve.

Question 9

Intersexual Selection

Answer 9

Definition: Intersexual selection is a form of sexual selection where individuals of one sex (usually females) choose mates based on specific traits in the opposite sex.

Explanation: Imagine a peacock with its dazzling tail feathers. Females choose males with the most impressive displays, leading to the evolution of these extravagant traits, even if they make the males more vulnerable to predators. This is intersexual selection in action.

Question 10

Intrasexual Selection

Answer 10

Definition: Intrasexual selection is a type of natural selection where members of the same sex compete for access to mates.

Explanation: Imagine a group of peacocks competing for the attention of a female. The peacock with the most impressive tail feathers wins, just like how individuals with traits that make them better competitors for mates are more likely to reproduce.

Question 11

Artificial Selection

Answer 11

Definition: Artificial selection is the process by which humans intentionally breed organisms with desirable traits, leading to changes in the population over generations.

Explanation: Imagine a farmer choosing only the biggest, juiciest tomatoes from their garden to plant next year. Over time, the tomatoes in the garden will become larger and juicier, just like how artificial selection works.

Question 12

Allele

Answer 12

Definition: An allele is a variant form of a gene, occupying a specific locus on a chromosome.

Explanation: Imagine a gene as a recipe for a trait, like eye color. Alleles are like different versions of the recipe, leading to variations like blue or brown eyes.

Question 13

Genotype

Answer 13

Definition: A genotype refers to the genetic makeup of an organism, encompassing the specific alleles or variations of genes it possesses.

Explanation: Imagine a recipe for a cake. The genotype is like the recipe itself, outlining the ingredients (genes) and their specific versions (alleles) that determine the final product (organism).

Question 14

Phenotype

Answer 14

Definition: Phenotype refers to the observable characteristics of an organism, resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

Explanation: Imagine a recipe for a cake (genotype). The actual cake you bake (phenotype) depends not only on the recipe but also on the ingredients you use and how you bake it (environment).

Question 15

Homozygous

Answer 15

Definition: Homozygous refers to an individual possessing two identical alleles for a specific gene.

Explanation: Imagine a recipe for cookies. If you have two identical cookie cutters (alleles), you’ll make cookies that are all the same (homozygous).

Question 16

Heterozygous

Answer 16

Definition: Heterozygous refers to an individual possessing two different alleles for a specific gene.

Explanation: Imagine you have two boxes, one with a red ball and the other with a blue ball. If you pick one ball from each box, you have a heterozygous pair, representing different versions of the same gene.

Question 17

Dominant Allele

Answer 17

Definition: A dominant allele is a version of a gene that masks the expression of its recessive counterpart when both are present in an individual.

Explanation: Imagine a loud speaker (dominant allele) and a whisper (recessive allele). Even if both are present, you’ll only hear the loud speaker, just as the dominant trait is the one you see.

Question 18

Recessive Allele

Answer 18

Definition: A recessive allele is a version of a gene that only expresses its trait when two copies of it are present, one from each parent.

Explanation: Imagine a gene for eye color, where brown (B) is dominant and blue (b) is recessive. If you have one B and one b, you’ll have brown eyes. But if you have two b’s, you’ll have blue eyes, like having two blue paint drops instead of one blue and one brown.

Question 19

Mendelian Genetics

Answer 19

Definition: Mendelian genetics is the study of how traits are passed from parents to offspring, based on the principles of inheritance discovered by Gregor Mendel.

Explanation: Imagine a deck of cards: each card represents a gene, and each suit represents a different version of that gene (allele). When you shuffle the deck, you’re creating a new combination of genes, just like how parents pass on their traits to their children.

Question 20

Law of Segregation

Answer 20

Definition: The Law of Segregation states that during gamete formation, the two alleles for each gene separate, so that each gamete receives only one allele.

Explanation: Imagine a deck of cards with two suits: hearts and spades. Each card represents an allele. When you shuffle the deck, each card (allele) has an equal chance of being drawn (passed on to a gamete), ensuring that offspring inherit one allele from each parent.

Question 21

Law of Independent Assortment

Answer 21

Definition: The Law of Independent Assortment states that during gamete formation, alleles for different traits separate independently of one another.

Explanation: Imagine a deck of cards. When you shuffle the deck, the suit of a card (e.g., hearts) doesn’t influence the rank of another card (e.g., king). Similarly, genes for different traits (like eye color and hair color) are shuffled independently during meiosis, resulting in diverse combinations of traits in offspring.

Question 22

Chromosomes

Answer 22

Definition: Chromosomes are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of a cell that carry genetic information in the form of genes.

Explanation: Imagine chromosomes as instruction manuals for building a human. Each chromosome contains a set of genes, like chapters in the manual, that determine traits like eye color or height.

Question 23

DNA

Answer 23

Definition: DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning, and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses.

Explanation: Imagine DNA as a recipe book for life. It contains the instructions for building and maintaining an organism, just like a recipe book tells you how to make a cake.

Question 24

Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)

Answer 24

Definition: Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) are variations in a single nucleotide at a specific position in the genome, occurring in at least 1% of the population.

Explanation: Imagine a recipe for a cake, where a single ingredient is slightly different in different versions. SNPs are like these variations in the ‘recipe’ of our DNA, leading to unique traits and predispositions.

Question 25

Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS)

Answer 25

Definition: Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) are a type of observational study that scans the entire genome of a large group of individuals to identify genetic variations associated with a particular trait or disease.

Explanation: Imagine searching for a specific ingredient in a massive cookbook. GWAS is like scanning every recipe in the cookbook to find the ones that contain that ingredient, helping us understand how genes contribute to certain traits or diseases.

Question 26

Heritability

Answer 26

Definition: Heritability is a statistical measure that estimates the proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is due to genetic differences.

Explanation: Imagine a family garden with different flower colors. Heritability tells us how much of the color variation is due to the seeds (genes) versus the soil and sunlight (environment).

Question 27

The Selfish Gene

Answer 27

Definition: The Selfish Gene theory proposes that genes, not individuals, are the primary units of selection in evolution. Genes act to perpetuate themselves by influencing the behavior and survival of organisms.

Explanation: Imagine genes as tiny, selfish robots that build bodies to help them survive and reproduce. They ‘want’ to make as many copies of themselves as possible, even if it means sacrificing the individual organism.

Question 28

Kin Selection

Answer 28

Definition: Kin selection is a form of natural selection where individuals sacrifice their own reproductive success to increase the survival and reproduction of their relatives, who share their genes.

Explanation: Imagine a group of ants. A worker ant might risk its life to protect the queen, even though it won’t reproduce itself. This is because the queen is its relative, and by protecting her, the worker ant indirectly increases the survival of its own genes.

Question 29

Inclusive Fitness

Answer 29

Definition: Inclusive fitness is a theory that proposes an organism’s reproductive success is measured by its contribution to the survival and reproduction of its genes, both through its own offspring and those of its relatives.

Explanation: Imagine a family tree. Your genes are passed down through your children, but also through your siblings, nieces, and nephews. Inclusive fitness considers the success of your entire genetic lineage, not just your direct offspring, like a family business where everyone benefits from shared success.

Question 30

Reciprocal Altruism

Answer 30

Definition: Reciprocal altruism is a behavioral strategy where individuals provide benefits to others, expecting that those benefits will be reciprocated in the future.

Explanation: Imagine a group of friends sharing tools. Each person lends a tool, knowing they’ll likely need to borrow one themselves later. This mutual exchange of favors is like reciprocal altruism, where cooperation benefits everyone in the long run.

Question 31

Group Selection

Answer 31

Definition: Group selection is a process where natural selection favors traits that benefit the group, even if those traits are detrimental to individual fitness.

Explanation: Imagine a group of ants working together to build a nest. Even though some ants might die in the process, the nest benefits the entire colony, making group selection a powerful force in evolution.

Question 32

Tangled Bank Theory

Answer 32

Definition: The Tangled Bank Theory, proposed by Charles Darwin, posits that the diversity of life arises from the interplay of competition and cooperation among species within a complex ecosystem.

Explanation: Imagine a garden with various plants competing for sunlight and nutrients. Some plants grow tall, others spread wide, and some even develop defenses against herbivores. This intricate web of interactions, like the tangled bank, drives evolution and creates the rich tapestry of life we see.

Question 33

Red Queen Theory

Answer 33

Definition: The Red Queen Theory proposes that species must constantly evolve and adapt to maintain their fitness in an ever-changing environment, often due to co-evolutionary pressures from other species.

Explanation: Imagine a race where you need to run faster just to stay in the same place. That’s the Red Queen effect. Species are constantly evolving to outcompete each other, like an arms race, just to survive.

Question 34

Coevolutionary Arms Race

Answer 34

Definition: Coevolutionary arms race is a continuous cycle of reciprocal adaptation between two species, where each species’ adaptations drive the evolution of the other.

Explanation: Imagine a predator and prey constantly evolving to outsmart each other. The predator gets faster, so the prey gets faster too, leading to a never-ending race for survival.

Question 35

Life History Theory

Answer 35

Definition: Life history theory is a framework that explains how natural selection shapes an organism’s allocation of resources throughout its lifetime, influencing traits like age at maturity, reproductive effort, and lifespan.

Explanation: Imagine a budget for your life. Life history theory is like figuring out how to spend that budget on things like growing up quickly, having lots of babies, or living a long time. The best strategy depends on your environment and what resources are available.

Question 36

r-selection

Answer 36

Definition: r-selection is a life-history strategy that emphasizes high reproductive rates and rapid development, often in unpredictable environments.

Explanation: Imagine a dandelion: it produces tons of seeds, ensuring some survive even in harsh conditions. This is r-selection - prioritizing quantity over quality in offspring.

Question 37

K-selection

Answer 37

Definition: K-selection is a life-history strategy where organisms prioritize survival and resource efficiency in stable environments, producing fewer offspring with higher investment in parental care.

Explanation: Imagine a forest with limited resources. K-selected species like oak trees produce few, strong acorns, ensuring their offspring have a good chance of survival in the competitive environment. It’s like investing in a few high-quality stocks instead of many risky ones.

Question 38

Behavioral Genetics

Answer 38

Definition: Behavioral genetics is a field that investigates the interplay between genetic and environmental factors in shaping behavioral traits.

Explanation: Imagine a plant’s growth. Genetics provides the blueprint, but the environment (sunlight, water) determines how that blueprint is expressed. Similarly, behavioral genetics explores how genes and experiences interact to influence our actions and personalities.

Question 39

Cognition

Answer 39

Definition: Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding through thinking, perceiving, learning, remembering, and problem-solving.

Explanation: Imagine your brain as a powerful computer. Cognition is like the software that allows it to process information, learn from experiences, and make decisions, just like a computer program uses code to function.

Question 40

Modular Cognition

Answer 40

Definition: Modular cognition is the idea that the human mind is composed of distinct, specialized modules, each responsible for processing specific types of information.

Explanation: Imagine your brain as a toolbox, with each tool (module) designed for a specific task, like a hammer for nails and a screwdriver for screws. Each module works independently, but together they allow us to handle complex cognitive tasks.

Question 41

Domain-Specific Cognition

Answer 41

Definition: Domain-specific cognition refers to the idea that our minds are not a general-purpose problem solver, but rather are composed of specialized modules designed to handle specific types of information and tasks.

Explanation: Imagine your brain as a toolbox. Each tool is designed for a specific job, like a hammer for nails or a screwdriver for screws. Similarly, domain-specific cognitive modules are specialized for tasks like language, navigation, or social interaction.

Question 42

Domain-General Cognition

Answer 42

Definition: Domain-general cognition refers to cognitive abilities that are not specific to any particular domain of knowledge or skill, but rather apply broadly across different situations and tasks.

Explanation: Imagine a Swiss Army knife: it has various tools for different purposes, but the underlying mechanism (the knife itself) is the same. Domain-general cognition is like that � a set of mental tools that can be used for various tasks, like problem-solving, learning, and reasoning.

Question 43

Theory of Mind (ToM)

Answer 43

Definition: Theory of mind (ToM) is the cognitive ability to attribute mental states�beliefs, intents, desires, emotions, knowledge�to oneself and others, and to understand that these states can differ from one’s own.

Explanation: Imagine you see a friend reaching for a cookie jar. ToM allows you to understand that your friend wants the cookie, even if you don’t want it yourself. It’s like having a mental map of other people’s minds.

Question 44

Cognitive Biases

Answer 44

Definition: Cognitive biases are systematic errors in thinking that occur due to our brains’ tendency to simplify information processing, leading to inaccurate judgments and decisions.

Explanation: Imagine you’re trying to find a specific book in a library. You might only look in the section you think it’s in, ignoring other possibilities. This is like a cognitive bias � we often rely on shortcuts, missing important information.

Question 45

Heuristics

Answer 45

Definition: Heuristics are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that allow us to make quick decisions and judgments, often based on incomplete information.

Explanation: Imagine you’re trying to find a specific book in a library. Instead of meticulously checking every shelf, you might use a heuristic like ‘look for books with similar titles’ to narrow down your search. Heuristics are like mental shortcuts that help us make decisions faster, even if they aren’t always perfect.

Question 46

Symbolic Representation

Answer 46

Definition: Symbolic representation is the use of abstract symbols, such as words, numbers, or images, to stand for or represent something else.

Explanation: Imagine a map. The lines and symbols on the map represent real roads and landmarks, allowing us to understand and navigate the world, just like symbols in our minds represent complex ideas and concepts.

Question 47

Altruism

Answer 47

Definition: Altruism is a behavior that benefits another individual at a cost to the performer.

Explanation: Imagine a bird warning its flock about a predator, even though this makes the bird more vulnerable. This is altruism, where the individual sacrifices for the benefit of the group.

Question 48

Parental Investment

Answer 48

Definition: Parental investment refers to any time, energy, or resources a parent allocates to raising their offspring, increasing the offspring’s chances of survival and reproduction at the cost of the parent’s ability to invest in other offspring or themselves.

Explanation: Imagine a baker with limited flour. They can make a few large loaves, giving each a good chance of success, or many small loaves, increasing the total number but risking some failing. Parental investment is like choosing how much flour to put in each loaf, balancing quantity with quality.

Question 49

Sibling Conflict

Answer 49

Definition: Sibling conflict refers to the competition or antagonism that arises between siblings, often stemming from perceived inequalities in parental attention, resources, or affection.

Explanation: Imagine two siblings vying for the same toy. The one who gets it feels favored, while the other feels neglected, leading to conflict.

Question 50

Cheater Detection

Answer 50

Definition: Cheater detection is a cognitive mechanism that allows individuals to identify and avoid those who violate social norms or agreements, potentially exploiting others for personal gain.

Explanation: Imagine a group of friends sharing a pizza. A ‘cheater’ might try to take more than their fair share. Cheater detection helps us spot this behavior and avoid interacting with such individuals in the future, ensuring fairness and cooperation within the group.

Question 51

In-group/Out-group Bias

Answer 51

Definition: In-group/out-group bias is the tendency to favor individuals within one’s own group (in-group) over those belonging to other groups (out-groups).

Explanation: Imagine a sports team: you cheer for your team (in-group) and might even feel a bit competitive towards the opposing team (out-group). This is a simple example of how we naturally favor our own group.

Question 52

Tribalism

Answer 52

Definition: Tribalism is the strong feeling of loyalty and identification with one’s own group, often accompanied by prejudice and hostility towards other groups.

Explanation: Imagine a school where students are divided into houses. Tribalism is like the intense rivalry between houses, where students feel a strong sense of belonging to their own house and may view other houses with suspicion or dislike.

Question 53

Empathy

Answer 53

Definition: Empathy is the capacity to understand or feel what someone else is experiencing from their perspective.

Explanation: Imagine you see someone trip and fall. Empathy is like stepping into their shoes, feeling their pain and embarrassment, even though it’s not happening to you.

Question 54

Care

Answer 54

Definition: Care is a complex behavioral and emotional response characterized by concern, attentiveness, and a desire to protect or nurture another individual or entity.

Explanation: Imagine a parent tending to a sick child. They are attentive to their needs, providing comfort and medication, demonstrating care through their actions and emotions.

Question 55

Culture

Answer 55

Definition: Culture encompasses the shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that characterize a particular group of people.

Explanation: Imagine culture as a recipe book for a society. It contains the ingredients (beliefs, values) and instructions (customs, behaviors) for how to live and interact, passed down through generations like a family recipe.

Question 56

Material Culture

Answer 56

Definition: Material culture encompasses the physical objects, technologies, and artifacts created and used by a society, reflecting its values, beliefs, and practices.

Explanation: Imagine a society’s material culture as its ‘tool kit’ for life. Just like a carpenter’s tools reflect their trade, a society’s material culture reveals its way of life, from simple tools to complex technologies.

Question 57

Non-material Culture

Answer 57

Definition: Non-material culture encompasses intangible aspects of a society, including beliefs, values, customs, traditions, and language.

Explanation: Imagine a recipe for a cake. The recipe itself (the instructions) is non-material culture, while the actual cake (the tangible product) is material culture. Non-material culture guides how we interact and understand the world.

Question 58

Cultural Universals

Answer 58

Definition: Cultural universals are traits, patterns, or institutions that are common to all human cultures.

Explanation: Think of cultural universals like the basic building blocks of any society, like language, art, or family structures. Just like all houses need walls and a roof, all cultures need these fundamental elements to function.

Question 59

Social Learning

Answer 59

Definition: Social learning is the process of acquiring new behaviors and knowledge through observation, imitation, and interaction with others.

Explanation: Imagine learning to ride a bike by watching your friend. You observe their movements, try to mimic them, and eventually learn through their guidance. This is similar to social learning, where we learn from others’ experiences and actions.

Question 60

Imitation

Answer 60

Definition: Imitation is the act of copying the behavior, mannerisms, or actions of another individual.

Explanation: Imagine a child learning to ride a bike by watching their older sibling. They mimic the movements and balance, eventually mastering the skill through imitation.

Question 61

Emulation

Answer 61

Definition: Emulation is the process by which one species evolves to resemble another species, often for protection or to gain an advantage.

Explanation: Imagine a harmless snake mimicking the venomous coral snake’s bright colors. Predators learn to avoid the coral snake, so the harmless snake benefits from the ‘fake’ warning.

Question 62

Evoked Culture

Answer 62

Definition: Evoked culture refers to the culturally patterned behaviors that emerge in response to specific environmental conditions.

Explanation: Imagine a group of people living in a hot climate. They might develop cultural practices like wearing light clothing and taking frequent dips in the water, which are evoked by the environment.

Question 63

Transmitted Culture

Answer 63

Definition: Transmitted culture refers to the learned behaviors, beliefs, and knowledge that are passed down from one generation to the next within a population.

Explanation: Imagine a recipe for a delicious cake passed down through generations of a family. Each generation might add their own twist, but the core recipe remains, representing the transmitted culture of that family.

Question 64

Dual Inheritance Theory

Answer 64

Definition: Dual inheritance theory proposes that human behavior is shaped by both genetic inheritance (biological evolution) and cultural inheritance (social learning).

Explanation: Imagine a recipe book passed down through generations. The ingredients (genes) determine the basic dish, but the specific instructions (culture) can change how it’s prepared, leading to diverse variations.

Question 65

Niche Construction

Answer 65

Definition: Niche construction is the process by which organisms modify their environment, often in ways that benefit their survival and reproduction.

Explanation: Imagine a beaver building a dam. By altering the landscape, the beaver creates a new habitat that benefits itself and other species, demonstrating how organisms can actively shape their own niches.

Question 66

Meme

Answer 66

Definition: A meme is a cultural element, such as an idea, behavior, or style, that is transmitted from person to person within a society.

Explanation: Think of memes like a virus that spreads through a population, but instead of making you sick, they spread ideas and behaviors. Just like a catchy song can spread quickly, so can a meme.

Question 67

EEA (Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation)

Answer 67

Definition: The Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation (EEA) refers to the specific environmental conditions in which a particular trait or adaptation evolved.

Explanation: Imagine a fish evolving in a lake. Its streamlined body and fins are adaptations to its aquatic EEA. If it were suddenly moved to a desert, those adaptations would be less useful, highlighting the importance of the EEA in shaping traits.

Question 68

Proximate Explanations

Answer 68

Definition: Proximate explanations focus on the immediate, internal mechanisms that cause a behavior or trait, such as physiological or psychological processes.

Explanation: Imagine a car driving down the road. A proximate explanation would focus on the engine and fuel system, the immediate factors causing the car’s movement, rather than the reason the car was built or where it’s going.

Question 69

Ultimate Explanations

Answer 69

Definition: Ultimate explanations in evolutionary science seek to identify the fundamental, underlying causes of evolutionary phenomena, often focusing on the ultimate function or adaptive value of a trait.

Explanation: Imagine a bird’s colorful plumage. An ultimate explanation would focus on why it evolved, like attracting mates, while a proximate explanation would describe how the pigments are produced.

Question 70

Spandrels

Answer 70

Definition: Spandrels are phenotypic traits that are not directly selected for, but rather arise as a byproduct of other traits that are under selection.

Explanation: Imagine building an archway. The spaces between the arches, called spandrels, are not designed, but are a necessary consequence of the arch’s structure. Similarly, some traits in organisms are not directly selected for, but arise as a byproduct of other traits that are under selection.

Question 71

Exaptations

Answer 71

Definition: An exaptation is a trait that evolved for one purpose but was later co-opted for a different function.

Explanation: Imagine a bird’s feathers. They initially evolved for insulation, but later became crucial for flight. This shift in function is an exaptation.

Question 72

Gradualistic Evolution

Answer 72

Definition: Gradualistic evolution is a model of evolution that posits that evolutionary change occurs slowly and steadily over long periods, with small, incremental changes accumulating over time.

Explanation: Imagine a sculptor slowly shaping a piece of clay. Each small change, like adding a bit of clay or smoothing a surface, contributes to the final form. Similarly, gradualistic evolution suggests that species evolve through a series of small, gradual changes over many generations.

Question 73

Punctuated Equilibrium

Answer 73

Definition: Punctuated equilibrium is a theory in evolutionary biology that proposes that evolution occurs in bursts of rapid change interspersed with long periods of relative stability.

Explanation: Imagine a species of snails. For a long time, they might have a consistent shell shape. Then, a sudden environmental change, like a drought, could favor snails with thicker shells. This rapid change, followed by a period of stability, is like punctuated equilibrium.

Question 74

Naturalistic Fallacy

Answer 74

Definition: The naturalistic fallacy is a logical error that assumes what is natural is also morally good or right.

Explanation: Imagine a lion killing a gazelle. It’s natural, but we wouldn’t call it morally good. Just because something happens in nature doesn’t mean it’s ethically justified.

Question 75

Moralistic Fallacy

Answer 75

Definition: The moralistic fallacy is a logical error that assumes that because something is morally good or bad, it must also be true or false.

Explanation: Imagine a child believing that because they want to fly, they can. This is like the moralistic fallacy - just because we want something to be true doesn’t make it so. Similarly, just because something is morally good doesn’t mean it’s scientifically accurate.

Question 76

Standard Social Science Model

Answer 76

Definition: The Standard Social Science Model (SSSM) is a framework that posits that human behavior is primarily shaped by culture and learning, with minimal influence from biological factors.

Explanation: Imagine a blank canvas representing a human mind. The SSSM suggests that culture paints the canvas, shaping our thoughts and actions, while biology provides the canvas itself.

Question 77

Biophobia

Answer 77

Definition: Biophobia is an intense and irrational fear of living organisms, particularly animals.

Explanation: Imagine being terrified of a harmless spider, even though you know it poses no threat. That’s biophobia - an exaggerated fear of living things, like a phobia of heights but for bugs!

Question 78

Monogamy

Answer 78

Definition: Monogamy is a mating system where an individual has only one partner at a time.

Explanation: Imagine a dance where each person only dances with one partner for the entire event. That’s monogamy in the animal world - one partner, one dance.

Question 79

Polygyny

Answer 79

Definition: Polygyny is a mating system where one male mates with multiple females.

Explanation: Imagine a group of birds where one male bird has a harem of several female birds. This is polygyny, where one male controls access to multiple females for reproduction.

Question 80

Polyandry

Answer 80

Definition: Polyandry is a mating system where a female mates with multiple males during a breeding season.

Explanation: Imagine a group of female peacocks, each choosing to mate with several males with the most impressive tail feathers, increasing the genetic diversity of their offspring.

Question 81

Promiscuity

Answer 81

Definition: Promiscuity refers to a mating system characterized by frequent mating with multiple partners, without strong pair bonds or lasting relationships.

Explanation: Imagine a bustling marketplace where everyone is free to trade with whomever they choose, without any long-term commitments. That’s similar to promiscuity in the animal world, where individuals have many partners without forming lasting pairs.

Question 82

Oestrus

Answer 82

Definition: Oestrus, also known as heat, is the period in a female mammal’s reproductive cycle when she is sexually receptive and fertile.

Explanation: Imagine a light switch: Oestrus is like the ‘on’ position, signaling that a female is ready to mate and potentially conceive.

Question 83

Dimorphism

Answer 83

Definition: Dimorphism refers to the existence of two distinct forms or phenotypes within a species, typically based on sex.

Explanation: Imagine a pair of shoes: one for a man and one for a woman. They serve the same purpose (walking) but have different designs to fit different needs. Similarly, dimorphism reflects different adaptations for males and females within a species.

Question 84

Sperm Competition

Answer 84

Definition: Sperm competition is the biological process where sperm from different males compete to fertilize a female’s egg.

Explanation: Imagine a race where multiple runners (sperm) are vying for the finish line (egg). The sperm with the best traits, like speed and endurance, are more likely to win and father offspring.

Question 85

Coolidge Effect

Answer 85

Definition: The Coolidge effect is a phenomenon observed in some species where males exhibit renewed sexual interest in novel females, even after becoming satiated with a familiar partner.

Explanation: Imagine a man who’s been eating the same sandwich for lunch every day. He might get tired of it. But if he’s offered a new, exciting sandwich, he’ll be more likely to eat it. The Coolidge effect is like that, but with sex. A male might lose interest in a familiar female, but a new female can rekindle his interest.

Question 86

Fraternal Birth Order Effect Hypothesis

Answer 86

Definition: The Fraternal Birth Order Effect Hypothesis proposes that men with older brothers have a higher probability of being homosexual, due to the immune system’s response to male-specific antigens during prenatal development.

Explanation: Imagine each older brother as a ‘training session’ for the mother’s immune system. With each male fetus, the immune system becomes more adept at recognizing and attacking male-specific proteins. This ‘training’ can influence the development of the younger brother’s brain, potentially increasing the likelihood of a homosexual orientation.

Question 87

Sexually Antagonistic Selection

Answer 87

Definition: Sexually antagonistic selection is a type of natural selection where traits that benefit one sex are detrimental to the other.

Explanation: Imagine a peacock’s tail: it attracts mates but makes the peacock more vulnerable to predators. This is sexually antagonistic selection, where traits that boost one sex’s reproductive success can harm the other’s survival.

Question 88

Heterozygote Advantage

Answer 88

Definition: Heterozygote advantage refers to the increased fitness of individuals carrying two different alleles for a particular gene compared to individuals with two identical alleles.

Explanation: Imagine a plant with two versions of a gene, one for drought resistance and one for nutrient absorption. A plant with both versions (heterozygote) thrives in diverse conditions, while plants with only one version (homozygotes) struggle in specific environments.

Question 89

Internal Regulation

Answer 89

Definition: Internal regulation refers to the processes by which an organism maintains a stable internal environment, despite external fluctuations.

Explanation: Imagine your body as a thermostat. It constantly adjusts your temperature, like a thermostat adjusting the heat in your house, to keep you comfortable and functioning optimally.

Question 90

Motor Skills

Answer 90

Definition: Motor skills are learned and practiced movements that involve the coordination of muscles and the nervous system to produce a desired action.

Explanation: Think of learning to ride a bike. At first, it’s clumsy, but with practice, your brain and muscles work together smoothly, allowing you to balance and pedal effortlessly.

Question 91

Sensory Systems

Answer 91

Definition: Sensory systems are biological structures that detect and process stimuli from the environment, enabling organisms to perceive and interact with their surroundings.

Explanation: Imagine your senses as a team of detectives. Each detective (sight, smell, touch, taste, hearing) gathers information from the environment and reports back to your brain, which then interprets the information and helps you understand the world around you.

Question 92

Representations

Answer 92

Definition: Representations are internal models or mental frameworks that organisms use to understand and interact with their environment.

Explanation: Imagine a map of a city. It’s a simplified representation of the real city, helping you navigate. Similarly, our brains create representations of the world, allowing us to make sense of complex information and make decisions.

Question 93

Agency Detection

Answer 93

Definition: Agency detection is the cognitive bias that leads humans to perceive intentionality and agency in inanimate objects or random events.

Explanation: Imagine seeing a rock roll down a hill. Agency detection makes you think someone pushed it, even though it was just gravity. We’re wired to see purpose, even when it’s not there.

Question 94

Pattern Recognition

Answer 94

Definition: Pattern recognition is the ability to identify recurring structures or regularities in data, enabling the prediction of future events or the classification of new data.

Explanation: Imagine you’re learning a new language. You start by recognizing common patterns in words, like the ‘ing’ ending for verbs. This helps you understand new words and sentences, just like pattern recognition helps us make sense of complex data.

Question 95

Pop-out Effect

Answer 95

Definition: The pop-out effect describes the rapid and effortless detection of a target stimulus that differs significantly from its surrounding distractors in a visual scene.

Explanation: Imagine searching for a red apple in a basket of green apples. The red apple ‘pops out’ because it’s different, just like a unique feature makes a target stand out in a visual search.

Question 96

Prepared Learning

Answer 96

Definition: Prepared learning is a phenomenon where organisms are predisposed to learn certain associations more readily than others, due to evolutionary pressures.

Explanation: Imagine a child quickly learning to fear snakes, even without direct experience. This is prepared learning, like a pre-programmed ‘fear button’ for threats our ancestors faced.

Question 97

Logical Reasoning

Answer 97

Definition: Logical reasoning is the process of using a set of known facts or premises to reach a valid conclusion.

Explanation: Imagine a detective using clues to solve a crime. Logical reasoning is like the detective’s process of connecting the dots to reach a conclusion based on the evidence.

Question 98

Bat and Ball Problem

Answer 98

Definition: The Bat and Ball Problem is a classic example of a cognitive illusion that demonstrates how our intuitions about probability can be flawed. It involves a scenario where we are given limited information and asked to estimate the probability of an event, leading to a systematic bias in our judgment.

Explanation: Imagine you’re told a baseball bat and ball cost $1.10, and the bat costs $1 more than the ball. Intuitively, you might think the ball costs $0.10. However, the correct answer is $0.05. This problem highlights how our brains tend to jump to conclusions based on limited information, even if those conclusions are incorrect.

Question 99

Wason Selection Task

Answer 99

Definition: The Wason Selection Task is a logic puzzle that assesses an individual’s ability to apply a conditional rule to a set of stimuli.

Explanation: Imagine you’re a bouncer at a club with the rule: ‘If someone is drinking beer, they must be over 21.’ The task is to identify the cards you need to check to see if anyone is breaking the rule. You’d check the ‘drinking beer’ card and the ‘under 21’ card, as these could reveal rule violations.

Question 100

Indicative Reasoning

Answer 100

Definition: Indicative reasoning is a type of logical inference where the conclusion is likely, but not guaranteed, based on the evidence provided.

Explanation: Imagine a detective finding a footprint at a crime scene. They can infer the likely presence of a person, but not definitively prove it. This is indicative reasoning - the evidence suggests a conclusion, but doesn’t guarantee it.

Question 101

Deontic Reasoning

Answer 101

Definition: Deontic reasoning is the process of making decisions based on moral obligations and rules, considering what is right or wrong.

Explanation: Imagine a traffic light: Red means stop, a moral obligation, while green means go, a permissible action. Deontic reasoning helps us navigate these rules and make choices based on what’s ethically right.

Question 102

Social Contract Theory

Answer 102

Definition: Social contract theory posits that individuals voluntarily surrender certain rights and freedoms in exchange for the benefits of living in a society governed by laws and institutions.

Explanation: Imagine a group of people living in a chaotic state of nature. They agree to give up some individual freedom, like the right to take whatever they want, in exchange for the security and order provided by a government, like a shared set of rules and a police force.

Question 103

Egocentric Cognition

Answer 103

Definition: Egocentric cognition is the tendency to perceive and interpret the world solely from one’s own perspective, failing to consider other viewpoints.

Explanation: Imagine you’re holding a giant, colorful balloon. You can see all its sides, but someone standing behind you can only see the back. Egocentric cognition is like only seeing the balloon from your own perspective, forgetting that others might see it differently.

Question 104

Allocentric Cognition

Answer 104

Definition: Allocentric cognition refers to the ability to represent the spatial environment and objects within it independently of one’s own position and orientation.

Explanation: Imagine you’re navigating a maze. Allocentric cognition is like having a map of the maze in your head, allowing you to plan your route even if you’re blindfolded. It’s about understanding the world from an objective, external perspective.

Question 105

Category Mapping

Answer 105

Definition: Category mapping is the cognitive process of associating new information with existing mental categories, allowing us to understand and organize the world around us.

Explanation: Imagine a filing cabinet where each drawer represents a category. When you learn something new, you find the appropriate drawer and file it away, making it easier to retrieve and connect with other related information.

Question 106

Cued Representation

Answer 106

Definition: Cued representation is a cognitive process where information is encoded and retrieved based on specific cues or prompts.

Explanation: Imagine your brain as a giant library. Cued representation is like finding a book by its title (the cue) rather than searching through every shelf (all your memories).

Question 107

Indexical Representation

Answer 107

Definition: Indexical representation is a type of mental representation where the meaning of a symbol is directly tied to its context or situation.

Explanation: Imagine a word like ‘here’. Its meaning changes depending on where you are standing. Similarly, indexical representations in our minds are like mental ‘pointers’ that point to specific things in our environment.

Question 108

Detached Representation

Answer 108

Definition: Detached representation is the ability of an organism to form mental models of the world that are independent of its immediate sensory experience.

Explanation: Imagine a map. It’s a detached representation of a city, allowing you to navigate without actually being there. Similarly, animals can form mental maps of their environment, helping them find food or avoid danger.

Question 109

Inhibition/Self-Control

Answer 109

Definition: Inhibition, or self-control, is the ability to resist impulses and delay gratification in favor of long-term goals.

Explanation: Imagine a child wanting candy now, but knowing they’ll get a bigger treat later. Inhibition is like the child choosing to wait for the bigger reward, even though it’s harder in the moment.

Question 110

Instincts

Answer 110

Definition: Instincts are innate, unlearned behaviors that are triggered by specific stimuli and are essential for survival.

Explanation: Imagine a baby bird instinctively knowing to fly out of the nest when it’s time. Just like that, instincts are pre-programmed behaviors that help organisms adapt to their environment.

Question 111

Reflexes

Answer 111

Definition: A reflex is an involuntary, automatic response to a stimulus, mediated by a neural pathway called a reflex arc.

Explanation: Imagine a doctor tapping your knee with a hammer. Your leg automatically kicks out - that’s a reflex! It’s like a pre-programmed response, bypassing the brain for faster action.

Question 112

Fixed Action Patterns

Answer 112

Definition: Fixed action patterns (FAPs) are innate, unlearned behavioral sequences that are triggered by specific stimuli, known as releasers, and are carried out to completion regardless of external circumstances.

Explanation: Imagine a dog seeing a squirrel. It’s like a switch is flipped, and the dog automatically chases the squirrel, even if it’s not hungry. This is a fixed action pattern, a pre-programmed behavior triggered by a specific stimulus.

Question 113

Niche Fitting

Answer 113

Definition: Niche fitting is the process by which species evolve to occupy specific ecological roles, minimizing competition and maximizing resource utilization.

Explanation: Imagine a buffet with different food stations. Each species is like a diner specializing in a particular station, avoiding competition and maximizing their food intake. This is niche fitting, where species evolve to fit specific ecological roles.

Question 114

Frequency-Dependent Selection

Answer 114

Definition: Frequency-dependent selection is a type of natural selection where the fitness of a phenotype depends on its frequency relative to other phenotypes in the population.

Explanation: Imagine a population of butterflies with two color morphs: red and blue. If red butterflies are more common, predators will learn to target them, making blue butterflies more fit. As blue butterflies become more common, the cycle reverses, illustrating how fitness depends on the frequency of each morph.