This is the end my friend Flashcards
Describe:
Chromosomes of prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
DNA is circular and consisting of one chromosome in prokaryotes. Is linear in eukaryotes, the mass of chromosomes are the chromatin.
Explain:
How introns and exons are treated in polypeptide synthesis
Exons are coding DNA and introns are non-coding DNA. Introns are transcribed in transcription but are spliced out to form an mRNA molecule containing only exons.
Describe:
Codons and anticodons and the molecule they are attached to
Codons are groups of 3 nucleotides on an mRNA molecule which code for an amino acid through complementary binding with anticodons on tRNA which is a clover shape molecule with anticodon on middle clove.
Explain:
Types of proteins
Catalyst, hormone, antibodies, structural, transport, contraction, gene regulators
Describe:
How protein shape is important and how it is affected
Secondary structure is the coiling or folding of chain caused by H-bonding. This affects the tertiary structure which is the 3D shape in how it folds.
Describe:
What factors affect rate of enzyme reaction and how their function is affected.
Temperature, pH, presence of inhibitors affects the function
Concentration of reactants and enzyme affects the rate of reaction.
Describe:
How methylation can lead to cancer and its importance
Methyl group added to strand, C-base, which is important in gene expression. Blocking polymerase transcription, tumor suppression genes, DNA repair genes may be methylated and thus leading to uncontrolled production of cells or tumor.
Describe:
Factors that affect gene expression
Gender, Chemicals, Temperature, light (UV).
Describe;
Gene control
Transcription factors may bind to promoter regions on DNA, there are activators and repressors.
Describe:
How genes can be transferred out of and into species and probes
Genetic code is universal, Gene probes (single strand DNA/mRNA segment) are fluorescent. Restriction enzymes recognise shot nucleotide sequences and cuts backbone. DNA ligase joins two.
Than vectors are used to get cells into animals
Explain:
How CRISPR can edit/transfer genes
Cas 9 enzyme uses guide RNA to cut DNA at the complimentary location
Describe:
The manufacture of new proteins
Through plasmid bacterium edits, proteins can be manufactured and used for many things.
Explain:
The fluid mosaic model of cell membrane
Fluid as lipids and proteins my move sideways in membrane.
Mosaic as there is a variety of molecules in bilayer (cholesterol, integral, peripheral, glycoproteins/lipids, channel and pump proteins)
Describe:
What cell membrane is used for
Cell communication, Cell adhesion
Describe:
All of the organelles
Nucleus contains DNA; controls cell activity
Nucleolus of proteins/RNA; formation of ribosomes
Mitochondria 2 membranes inner matrix; site of aerobic respiration
Chloroplast 2 membranes internal grana; site of photosynthesis
Vacuole membrane sac; store food, transport stuff, support in plants
RER flat membrane sac w/ribosome; site of protein synthesis by ribosomes/transport
SERflat membrane sac; synthesis of lipids
Lysosome vesicle with lysosomes; breakdown debris
cytoskeleton ; assembly of spindle prior to mitotic division
Explain:
Differences in plant and animal cells
Plants have cellulose cell wall
Chloroplasts in plants
Describe:
Photosynthesis equation
6CO2 + 6H2O ->(light/chlorophyll)-> C6H12O6 + 6O2
Explain:
Anaerobic respiration
Fermentation: Plants; ethanol and carbon dioxide C6H12O6 -> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 Animals; lactic acid C6H12O6 -> 2C3H6O3
Describe:
Aerobic respiration
Glycolysis in cytosol = 4 (-2) ATP
Krebs cycle in mitochondria = 2 ATP
Electron transport chain in mitochondria = 32 ATP
Describe:
Binary fission
DNA replication, than 2 circular chromosomes, each attach to the inside of cell membrane, divides into 2 daughter cells.
Describe:
Mitotic division/ mitosis
Prophase; After interphase (DNA replic), DNA condenses and chromosomes become visible
Metaphase; spindle fibers move chromosomes in line to equator
Anaphase; Centromeres separate, sister chromatids are drawn apart
Telophase; new nuclei form at opposite poles
Cytokinesis; cytoplasm divides
Describe:
Miosis
Prophase1; After interphase (DNA replic), chromosomes condense, homologous chromosomes pair up and cross over
Metaphase1; pairs of chromosomes move to equator
Anaphase1; Chromosome of each pair go to opposite poles randomly as independent assortment
Telophase1; spindle breaks down, two cells are formed through cytokinesis
Meiosis stage 2:
Same stuff occurs in two cells
Telophase2; nucleolus becomes visible, chromosomes decondense. 4 resultant haploid cells through cytokinesis
Compare:
Products of mitotic and meiotic division
Mitotic division produces 2 identical cells from one.
Meiotic division produces 4 haploid cells from one diploid with variation.
Describe:
Stages in cell cycle
Interphase; G0; no division G1;growth G1 CP-> DNA is checked for damage S;DNA repliication G2; development/preperation for organelle division G2 CP-> ensure replication was g Mitosis M CP-> during metaphase, ensures chromosomes are lined up Cytokinesis
Explain:
How hormones regulate cell division
Growth hormones can indicate the action of molecules by binding to complementary receptors.
Describe:
Techniques for cell culture discussing applications.
Needs nutrients, suitable medium, optimum temp/pH/gas and growth factors.
Manufacture vaccines, research, manufacture hormones/enzymes, food production
Describe:
Tolerance limits
Internal environment must be kept within tolerance limit, temp/water lvl/pH/sugar.
Describe:
Endocrine system
Involved with hormones and messages
Pituitary, thyroid, thymus, pancreas, adrenal.
Explain:
Stimulus response model
A variable in internal environment oscillates.
Stimulus, response, transmision, effector, response, feedback
Describe:
Nervous system
SNS= brain/spinal chord for processing info PNS= for transmitting info; Somatic NS for voluntary control, Autonomic NS involuntary control = sympathetic NS(fight or flight) and parasympathetic NS (quiet state)
Describe :
Structure and function of all neurons
Sensory; dendrites, axon in myelin sheath to dendrite with cell body on side.
Inter; cell body in dendrites then axon to dendrite
Motor; cell body in dendrites, then axon in myelin sheath, to dendrite
Explain:
Specific hormones that you know
[Pituitary] ADH (formed in hypothalamus) = more reabsorption in kidney
[Pituitary] TSH = stimulates thyroid
[Thyroid] Thyroxine = metabolism heat production
[pancreas] Insulin = glucose take in and form glycogen in muscles/liver
[Pancreas] glucagon = glycogen into sugar in liver
[Hypothalamus] TRH = stimulates pituitary gland to release TSH
Explain:
Control of body temp, sugar level, water level, CO2 level
Control of body temperature; Hypothalamus detects temp ->TRH -> pituitary TSH = metabolism increase/decrease = negative feedback
Control of blood sugar; cells in islets of langerhans in pancreas detect change -> insulin/glucagon secretion = negative feedback
Control of water levels; osmoreceptors in hypothalamus -> hormonal transmission = ADH -> kidneys=change in reabsorption of water = negative feedback
Control of CO2 levels; chemoreceptors in brain=nervous->intercostal muscles=increased breathing=negative feedback
Explain;
How common ancestry can be found and techniques to do so.
Sequencing of common proteins
DNA-DNA hybridisation
DNA sequencing
Describe:
Criteria to define a species
Morphological
Biochemical
Sharing of a gene pool
Describe:
Post-zygotic mechanisms of preventing inter-species offspring
Temporal isolation
Behavioural isolation
Mechanical isolation
Gamete isolation
Describe:
Post zygotic mechanisms of preventing inter-species offspring
Hybrid inviability
Hybrid sterility
