Thinking 1 Flashcards
define ‘problem’
(Duncker, 1945)
when living organism has a goal but does not know how to reach the goal
what are the 3 crucial elements of a problem?
1/ starting state
2/ goal state
3/ set of processes (called operators as you operate series of task to solve solution) that can transform from one state of the problem into another state until you get closer to goal
what are ‘well-defined’ problems?
problems that contain all 3 elements
what are ‘ill-defined’ problems?
problems where it is not certain what rules can be applied in order to get from A to B
What are the 2 historical approaches to problem solving?
1/ Behaviourist approach
2/ Gestalt Approach
Explain the behaviourist approach to problem solving
- idea that behaviour = objective and observable
- idea that we can use units of analysis like stimulus response relationships
- problem solving occurs through trial and error
Explain the Gestalt approach to problem solving
- believes problem solving = more than a reproduction of a learnt response
- idea that we go through process of restructuring the problem and then have moments of insight
- moments of insight lead to AHA! moment
- AHA! moment = realizing solution to problem
Identify a psychologist that supports the behavioural approach to problem solving
Thorndike
Outline Thorndike’s study into problem solving
(cats)
- placed hungry cat in puzzle box
- in order to exit, cats had to perform sequence of actions
- door would not open without performance
- Thorndike measured how long it would take for cat to open puzzle box door
Outline Thorndike’s study into problem solving
(cats)
- placed hungry cat in puzzle box
- in order to exit, cats had to perform sequence of actions
- door would not open without performance
- food placed outside of box
- gave cat motivation to leave box and eat
- Thorndike measured how long it would take for cat to open puzzle box door
Outline Thorndike’s findings into problem solving
(cats)
- beginning took a long time
- as number of trials increase = time spent trying to get out reduced
- demonstrates number of trial and error process as cat learns what needs to be done to achieve goal (open door)
- demonstrates behaviourist view as it shows problem solving number of trials and error
what is meant by ‘incremental learning’?
this idea that in problem solving, it is solved through trial and error
problem is solved through collecting all information about problem from all resources available to come up with solution
as opposed to just spontaneously coming up with solution (insightful learning)
what is incremental learning now known as?
operant learning
Identify a psychologist that supports the Gestalt Approach for problem solving
Kohler
Outline Kohler’s study into problem solving
- studied colony of chimps and their problem solving behaviour
- chimp named ‘Sultan’ had a problem where he could not reach bananas
- bananas were outside the cage and beyond reach of Sultan’s arms
- if given a stick that was long enough, Sultan would use this immediately to reach bananas
- if Sultan given two short sticks that, on its own, could not reach bananas, he would give up and sulk
- after period of sulking, Sultan placed two short stick inside each other to create a pole long enough to reach
Outline Kohler’s findings into problem solving
- shows how problem solving = as a result of sudden insight
- rather than incremental learning of trial and error as proposed by Thorndike
what are the 4 stages of creative thinking?
1/ preparation
2/ incubation
3/ illumination
4/ verification
explain the preparation stage of creative thinking
this is where a problem is formulated and initial attempts are made to solve problem
explain the incubation stage of creative thinking
where problem is left alone, no conscious work done on it
explain the illumination stage of creative thinking
sudden inspiration provides new perspective/insight into a way to solve problem
explain the verification stage of creative thinking
conscious work done on problem, testing the new inspiration to provide full solution to problem
What study provides evidence that incubation is necessary for problem solving?
Silveira (1971): The Cheap Necklace Problem
Outline the Cheap Necklace Problem study
(Silveira, 1971)
- ppts asked to solve a problem
- problem:
Given four separate pieces of chain that are each three links in length
Told that it costs 2cents to open a link and 3cents to close a link
All links are closed at the beginning of the problem
Goal is to join all 12 links into a single circle at a cost of no more than 15 cents
CONTROL GROUP
- worked on problem for 30 minutes
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 1:
- worked on problem for 30 minutes
- interrupted by 30 minute break
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 2:
- worked on problem for 30 minutes
- interrupted by 4 hour break
Outline the Cheap Necklace Problem findings
(Silveira, 1971)
CONTROL GROUP:
- 55% solved problem
EG1:
- 64% solved problem
EG2:
- 85% solved problem
- suggests incubation DOES help with problem solving
What did Murray & Denny (1969) find about incubation?
found that incubation is only necessary if the problem was hard
Outline Murray & Denny (1969) study looking into when incubation is necessary
- ppts divided into high and low ability groups
- this was determined on the basis of ppts performance in a creativity task
- ppts given 20 minutes to solve complex practical problem
- half of subjects given a 5 minute break in middle of task (incubation group)
- other half did not get a break (control group)
Outline the findings of Murray & Denny (1969) study into incubation
- suggested incubation only useful for problems people find hard
- high ability subjects (people who would have found complex task easy) = incubation hindered performance
- low ability subjects (people who would have found complex task hard) = incubation helped performance
identify 2 barriers to success
- functional fixedness
- mental set
explain functional fixedness as a barrier to success
where people fixate on a property/function of an object that can be used to solve problem
stop them thinking about problem in any other way
Outline Duncker (1945) study, supporting functional fixedness as a barrier for success
(Dunker’s Problem)
- ppts given a candle, box of matches, box of drawing pins
- asked to solve a problem using these items
- problem = support candle on the wall so it does not drip onto table below
- best solution is to use drawing pin box as a shelf and tac it to wall
- ppts fixated on the box’s normal function (to hold pins) and unable to restructure mind to think of box as a shelf
- if drawing pins were taken out of box, ppts more likely to solve problem
- shows being more flexible allows for better problem solving
explain mental set as a barrier to success
where people are stuck in a particular mental way which stops you from solving problem
this usually happens when having learnt a particular strategy for solving a problem that has been successful in the past
this process continues to be used even when inappropriate
Outline Luchins (1942) study that supports mental set as being a barrier to success
(Luchins water glass task)
- idea that mental set comes from past experience of dealing with other problems
- the water-jug problem involved
- ppts presented with a series 3 of jugs
- ppts told what volume of water 3 jugs have
- ppts required to use 3 jugs to measure a final required quantity
- most problems can be solved using the same pattern BUT problems 7 and 8 have more efficient solutions
- looking at whether ppts will continue with problem solving from other problems even when there is a more efficient approach
FINDINGS:
- found subjects kept using methods learnt in previous trials even if more efficient solutions were available
What is the Einstellung effect?
prior experience creates biases over how you solve the current problem
this blocks the solution with how to solve current task
what is the nine-dot problem?
this is a classic insight style (sudden solution) problem
some people suddenly realise the solution
ppts asked to draw four continuous straight lines to connect all nine dots without lifting pen from paper
how does the nine-dot problem demonstrate fixedness?
Scheerer found most people cannot solve this problem as they are fixated in believing they must stay in square
define feeling of knowing
the feeling of when we come close to a solution
‘tip-of-the-tongue’ phenomenon
what do feeling of knowing do?
can sometimes predict how close to a solution you are
what solutions do feelings of warmth have more of an effect on?
incremental solutions rather than insightful solutions
this distinguishes between two types of problems (non-insight and insight)
