things andersen says to memorize Flashcards
net reaction of citric acid cycle
2 Acetyl CoA + 6 H2O + 2 ADP –> 4 CO2 + 16 H + 2 CoAA + 2 ATP
what are the two ways that lipoproteins are made
intestinal cells and liver
how do basket and stellate cells affect purkinje cells
they provide lateral inhibition to purkinje cells to provide damping
putamen circuit is overall: excititory or inhibitory
what does it importantly bypass
excitittory
bypasses caudate nucleus
what lipoproteins are produced by liver
VLDL (directly)
IDL
LDL
HDL
what is the major factor of thermogenesis
basal metabolic rate
where do climbing fibers of the cerebellar cortex originate
medullary olives
damage to cerebellum can lead to what dysfunctions?
dysmetria, nystagmus, adiadochokinesia, cerebellar hypoplasia, ataxia
what is the result of destruction of dopaminergic neruons in lessions of substantia nigra?
overall inhibitory effect (because normally dopamine is excitatory, therefore if it is not produced it is inhibitory)
under what conditions do large quantities of triglycerides appear in the liver?
high fat diet and cholesterol
what is unique about the hypothalamus “receptors”
the neurons themselves are the receptors
what is the function of golgi tendon organ
inhibitory
opposite of the stretch
keeps muscles from hyper extending (stimulated by contracting or stretching of muscles)
caudate circuit: excitatory or inhibitory
inhibitory
where does the cerebellothalamocortical tract go
dentate, emboliform, globose nuclei –> thalamus –> motor cortex
site of gastrin secretion
gastrin is secreted from G cells
cajal cells
smooth cell electrical pacemakers
generate slow waves
have leaky gap junctions
what do the Dentate, emboliform and globose nucei control?
fastigial?
extremity
trunk
a very generalize neurotransmittter that is ALWAYS inhibitory
GABA
what is metabolic syndrome
a result of dibetes
characteristics of metabolic syndrome: obesity, fasting hyprglycemia, and hypertension
hypotonia
decrease in muscle tone, limp (floppy infant syndrome)
function of spinocerebellum
tells the cerebellum the plan
what cranial nerves regulate the secretion of saliva
CN VII (facial) CN IX (glossopharyngeal)
lateral corticospinal tract: supplies what and crosses where
supplies all levels of the spinal cord
crosses in medulla
what lipoprotein is made from intestinal cells
chylomicrons
what makes up the anterior preoptic hypothalamus
anterior hypothalamic nuclei
medial pre-optic area
what is the main link between the cortex and cerebellum
corticopontocerebellar
funcctions of premotor and supplementary motor areas
generate a plan for movement and send it to primary cortex
what inhibits gastric secretions
somatostatin
prostaglandins
cold sensitive neuron function
generation of and conservation of heat
what is the best known stimuli for increasing the rate of thyroid stimulating hormone
cold
what does the corticobulbar tract innervate
face, head, and neck
actions of gastrin
stimulate gastric acid secretions by parietal cells
Stimulates mucosal growth by
stimulating synthesis of RNA and new
protein.
what are the functions of nuclear bag fibers and nuclear chain fibers
nuclear bag fiber: detect rate of change in muscle length (how fast)
nuclear chain fibers: detect static change in muscle length (does it change length?)
function of cytochrome A3 (oxidase) in ECC
give up two electrons to oxygen
*oxygen is final electron acceptor
action of CCK (cholecystokinin)
controls feedback of duodenum
anterior corticospinal tract: supplies what and crosses where
supplies neck and upper limbs
crosses near level of synapse with LMNs
what is the result of muscle spindle stimulation, what fibers are involved
stimulation of the Ia and II fibers in muscle spindle result in stimulation of alpha motor neurons resulting in contraction and shortening of muscle
where do the mossy fibers terminate
granule cells in the cerebellar cortex
renshaw cells: inhibitory or excitatory?
inhibitory
vestibulospinal tract main functions
maintain balance
maintain upright posture
can only recognize movement if the entire head moves
(macula is involved in this)
inhibition of secretion of gastrin
acid from stomach
somatostatin
what is the most potent mechanism for increaing heat production
shivering
disinhibition: define and give example in the putamen circuit
an inhibitory signal inhibiting an inhibitory signal
two negatives make a positive
GABA (always inhibitory) in putamen circuit inhibiting the previous GABA
disdiadochokinesia
impaired ability to perform rapid, alternating movements
what do warm sensitive neurons activate and what is the result
overall function
activate neurons in the paraventricular nucleus and hypothalamus resultingin a heightened parasympathetic outflow that promotes dissipation of heat
control temperature set point
where does the cerebellorubral tract go?
dentate, emboliform, globose nuclei –> red nucleus
what lesions lead to Huntington? Parkinson’s
Huntington’s: lesion in striatum
Parkinson’s: lessions in substantia
number of ATPs per glucose in glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation
gly.: 2 ATP
CAC: 2 ATP
oxi-phosph: 34 ATP
what form climbing fibers
axons of olivocerebellar
purkinje cells: inhibitory or excitatory
ALWAYS INHIBITORY
what tracks form the mossy fibers
corticopontocerebellar
vestibulocerebellar
reticulocerebellar
spinocerebellar
where does facilitated transport of glucose occur
most tissues
stimulus for secretion of gastrin
small peptides and amino acids in stomach lumen, especially phenylalanine and trypophan; distention of stomach; vagal stimulation mediate by GRP (gastrin release peptide)
what is the first symptom of vestibulocerebellar syndrome
nystagmus
where does the cerebelloreticular tract go?
fastigial nuclei – >reticular nuclei in pons and medulla
chief cells secrete:
pepsinogen
where does sodium-glucose co-transport occur
GI tract and renal tubules
what is the efficiency of oxidative phosphorylation
66%
causative factors of fever
brain abnormalities
surgery in the region of the hypothalamus
prostaglandins
lipopolysaccharide toxins
can disaccharides be absorbed across the intestinal wall
no (glucose can)
how are lipids able to cross the intestinal mucosa
lipids must form complex with bile salts to form micelles to cross the intestinal mucosa
bile salts on outside
free fatty acids and monoglycerides are inside
increased blood glucose levels lead to:
increased osmotic pressur
osmotic diuresis
damge to tissues and blood vessels
ornithine urea cycle: what happens in mitochondria? what happens in cytoplasm?
mitochondria: ammonia +CO2 –> caramoyl phosphate;
carbamoyl phosphate + ornithine –> citrulline
cytoplasm: citulline + aspartate –> argininosuccinate;
argininosuccinate –> arginine + fumarate; arginine –> UREA + ORNITHINE
(fumarate enters citric acid cycle)
what fibers are in muscle fibers and what are they innervated by
muscle fibers are made up of extrafusal fibers and intervated by alpha motor neurons
what two conditions increase utilization of fat for energy
starvation and diabetes mellitus
nystagmus
involuntary eye movement which may cause the eye to rapidly move up and down, side to side, or in a circle
what is the only output from cerebellar cortex?
purkinje cells
what kind of fibers are are in muscle spindle?
intrafusal fibers
what controls pendular movements
vestibuloverebellum
*without it, will not be able to perform pendulary movements
what is function of gastrointestinal reflexes
allow different parts of GI to talk to eachother and the brain
name functions of: glucokinase, phosphatase, phosphorylase
glucokinase: transfer phosphate from ATP
phosphatase: removes phosphate
phosphorylase: catalyzes production of glucose-1-phosphate from glycogen
parietal cells secrete:
HCL
function of cerebrocerebellum
involved in coordination of skilled movement and speech
dysathria
slurred or slow speech
what is the major rate-limiting factor for almost all energy metabolism in the body
ADP
what is the pentose phosphate pathway primarily used for
synthesis of fats and other substances
where does the cerebellovestibular go?
cerebellum –> vestibular nuclei
what is the fate of the hydrogens produced from pentose phosphate pathway
bound to NADP+ (NOT NAD+)
red nuclues: stimulate ______ inhibits _____
the red nucleus represents all of the muscles
stimulates: flexors
inhibits: extensors
what areas of the brain control the gamma fibers
bulboreticular region of brain stem
cerebellum
basal nuclei
cerebral cortex
