Thermodynamics Flashcards

1
Q

making bonds is ___
breaking bonds is ___

A

make = exothermic
break = endothermic

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2
Q

Second Law of Thermodynamics

A

In a spontaneous process, the entropy of the Universe increases

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3
Q

molecular interpretation of entropy

A

randomness = how do molecules distribute themselves amongst available energy levels
–> statistical analysis

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4
Q

in statistical analysis, what does the weight of a distribution refer to?

A

the total number of ways a particular configuration can be achieved

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5
Q

what is the most probable distribution?

A

the one configuration with a larger value W than all the others
= the Boltzmann Distribution

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6
Q

Boltzmann Distribution eqn for population of level i, n(i), with energy ε(i)
+ interpret

A

n(i) = n(0) exp (-ε(i) / kT)

where k is Boltzmann’s constant
T is temperature

ie. as the energy of a level increases, its population decreases
as Temp raised, molecules move to higher energy levels

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7
Q

Eqn relating entropy to number of ways W

A

S = k lnW

k: Boltzmann’s constant
W: weight, ways

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8
Q

molecular energy level distribution when a system is heated

A

energy is supplied, some molecules move to higher energy levels
–> more spread out amongst energy levels so more ways of achieving the distribution, hence entropy increases

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9
Q

molecular energy level distribution when a system expands

A

when a system expands, the spacing of translational energy levels DECREASES
hence more energy levels available to the molecules
distributed over more levels, W increases, S increases

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10
Q

how does the size of entropy change depend on the T of a system?

A

the increase in entropy resulting from a certain amount of heat being supplied is GREATER the LOWER the temperature of the system

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11
Q

eqn classical definition of entropy

differential form

A

dS = 𝛿q(rev) / T

NOTE: even if the process itself is not reversible, must work out what the heat would be if we were to go by a reversible path!

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12
Q

eqn calculate entropy change of surroundings

A

surroundings are so large that all heat transfers are seen as reversible

∆S(surr) = q(surr) / T(surr) = -q(sys) / T(sys)
for a finite change

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13
Q

relate spontaneity of a process to ∆S(univ)

A

+ve = spontaneous (entropy of universe increases)
-ve = not spontaneous
= 0 is equilibrium, no tendency for further change

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14
Q

The First Law of Thermodynamics + eqn

A

energy cannot be created or destroyed but is transformed from one form into another

∆U = q + w

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15
Q

what are the different “forms” of energy?

A

heat, work and internal energy

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16
Q

key different between internal energy and heat/work

A

internal energy is a STATE function
heat/work are PATH functions

note that the symbol ‘∆’ is only appropriate for state functions

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17
Q

derive eqn for work done on an ideal gas by expansion

A

piston with area A experiences p(external)
force on the piston due to external pressure is p(ext) * A

small amount of work done BY the gas is force x distance dx (piston moved out)
δw = p(ext) * A dx = p(ext) dV

work done ON the gas: δw = - p(ext) dV

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18
Q

when a gas expands, what happens to the internal energy?

A

work is done so Internal energy falls

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19
Q

derive expression for expansion work done against CONSTANT external pressure

A

integrate p(ext) dV for an expansion between Vi and Vf
p(ext) constant, move out of integral

w = - p(ext) [Vf-Vi]

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20
Q

what must p(ext) be to do maximum expansion work for a gas in a cylinder?

A

to maximise work done, external pressure needs to be as high as possible but cannot exceed internal pressure (or else compression would occur, not expansion)
–> p(ext) infinitesimally smaller than p(int)

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21
Q

define reversible reaction

A

a process whose direction can be changed by an infinitesimal change in some variable

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22
Q

reversible vs spontaneous reactions

A

reversible:
infinitely slow
at equilibrium
do max work

irreversible = spontaneous:
finite rate
not at equilibrium
less than max work

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23
Q

how to find the expression for work done in a finite expansion for an ideal gas expanding reversibly

A

essentially, p(ext) = p(int)
work = integral of p(int) dV between Vi and Vf

for ideal gas, p(int)V=nRT –> sub for p(int)
Assume isothermal (constant T)

w(rev) = - nRT ln(Vf/Vi)

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24
Q

what is an indicator diagram?

A

essentially a graph of p(ext) vs V
work done in a finite expansion is the integral of p(ext)dV between Vi and Vf, so work done is the area under the curve

25
Q

what can be said about the magnitude of heat in a reversible process?

A

the magnitude of heat is a MAXIMUM

because for any particular initial and final states, ∆U is constant
as ∆U = q+w, if a path is changed such that w increases, q must change by the same amount to keep ∆U fixed hence q must also be at a maximum for such a path

26
Q

internal energy of an ideal gas

A

depends ONLY on temperature
because particles do not interact, if heat added it is only stored in Ek

hence for isothermal expansion, ∆U=0
and w’=q

27
Q

expression for heat for an isothermal, reversible expansion of ideal gas

A

q(rev) = w’ = nRT ln(Vf/Vi)

28
Q

expression for entropy change for any isothermal expansion of an ideal gas from Vi to Vf

A

∆S = nR ln(Vf/Vi)

confirming entropy increases as volume increases

from q(rev) = nRT ln(Vf/Vi) and ∆S=q(rev)/T

29
Q

first law for infinitesimal changes

A

dU = 𝛿q + 𝛿w

note: 𝛿 not d because d implies “a small change in” but heat and work are state functions hence must talk about “a small amount of” heat/work

30
Q

first law for infinitesimal changes and expansion work only

A

dU = 𝛿q - p(ext)dV

31
Q

expression for heat absorbed under conditions of constant volume

A

dU = 𝛿q(const vol)

because p(ext)dV = 0, no expansion
so to find ∆U, measure the heat under constant volume conditions

32
Q

relationship between heat supplied and temperature change

A

q = c∆T
where c is the heat capacity

q = nC(m) ∆T
where C(m) is molar heat capacity and n is moles

33
Q

definition of heat capacity at constant volume

A

C(V,m) = (∂U(m) / ∂T)|V

34
Q

what is enthalpy? give eqn

A

H = U + pV

a state function whose value is equal to the heat supplied at constant pressure (sum of internal energy and pV work)

35
Q

complete differential of the enthalpy equation

A

dH = dU + pdV + Vdp

from H=U+pV

36
Q

relate enthalpy change to heat

A

dH = 𝛿q(const.press)
enthalpy change is equal to heat measured under conditions of constant pressure

by subbing dU=𝛿q-pdV and taking Vdp=0, const press

37
Q

definition of heat capacity at constant pressure

A

C(p,m) = (∂H(m) / ∂T) |p

38
Q

equation for converting enthalpy at one temperature to another

A

Hm(T2) = Hm(T1) + C(p,m) [T2-T1]

from integrating the definition of heat cap at constant pressure, assuming constant C

note C(p,m) is a molar quantity and as such gives change in molar enthalpy

39
Q

how to express entropy S in terms of heat capacity (something you can actually measure!)

A

using dS = dH/T
and dH(m) = C(p,m) dT

over wide temp range, CANNOT assume constant C
integrate C(T)/T wrt T over some wide temp range

40
Q

justification for entropy at absolute zero = 0

A

at absolute 0, kT goes to 0 so all molecules in lowest energy level (ground state), only one way to arrange so W=1 and S=klnW=0.

41
Q

absolute entropy S(T*) expression

A

= integral of Cp,m(T)/T wrt T + sum of entropy of phase changes

42
Q

convert entropy S at T1 to T2

A

Sm(T2) = Sm(T1) + C(p,m) ln(T2/T1)

from integrating Cp,m/T wrt dT assuming constant C over small T1 to T2

43
Q

define Gibbs energy state function

A

∆G = ∆H - T∆S

all for the SYSTEM

44
Q

relate change in G to spontaneity

A

dG < 0 = spontaneous
at equilibrium G reaches a minimum, dG =0

45
Q

the first thermodynamic Master Equation

A

dU = TdS - pdV

aka “First and Second Laws combined”
dU = 𝛿q-𝛿W for pV work, and 𝛿q=TdS

46
Q

the second thermodynamic Master Equation

A

dG = Vdp - SdT

from the differential form of H=U+pV
and sub in first master eqn
then sub dH expression into differential form of G=H-TS

47
Q

how does Gibbs energy vary with pressure (constant T)?
for ideal gas

A

dG = Vdp (dT=0)
sub V = nRT/p and integrate

–> Gm(p) = Gm˚ + RT ln(p/p˚)

48
Q

how does Gibbs vary with volume at constant T?

A

V inversely proportional to p
p2/p1 = V1/V2

sub in expression for G(p)
G(V2) - G(V1) = nRT ln(V1/V2)

49
Q

Gibbs-Helmholtz equation

A

d/dT (G/T) = -H/T^2

at constant pressure

50
Q

general method: how to find Gibbs energy of mixtures

A

using partial pressures of gases (for ideal gases)

51
Q

partial pressure defintion

A

p(i) = x(i) p(tot)

where x(i) is the mole fraction of I

52
Q

equation for Gibbs energy of a mixture of ideal gases

A

G = sum of n * Gm(p)
n is number of moles, Gm(p) is molar gibbs energy for partial pressure of a species

53
Q

what is the chemical potential for ideal gases?

A

µ is the same as molar gibbs energy

so that G = sum of nµ

54
Q

what is the chemical potential for solutions?

A

µ(c) = µ˚ + RT ln(c/c˚)

same as molar gibbs energy eqn except using conc instead of pressure

for ideal solutions

55
Q

what is the chemical potential of a solid or liquid?

A

solids and pure liquids are always in standard state so = µ˚

56
Q

definition of standard state

A

standard state of a substance =. in pure form at one bar and specified temp

57
Q

∆rH˚ =

A

sum of standard enthalpies of formation * stoic coefficients

58
Q
A