Theory Of Mind

Question 1

Definition of ‘theory of mind’, who by?

Answer 1

Having an understanding of other people as people who have desires, beliefs and their own interpretation of the world - (Smith et al 2005)

Question 2

Why is it a theory of mind? 2 points

Answer 2

‘Mind’ is a theoretical construct in itself, we can only infer from people behaviour.
It allows us to understand other people behaviours.

Question 3

What can we understand?

Answer 3

We have emotions/desires.
Knowledge
Beliefs
Objects in the mind are not the same as real objects.
Metacognition- we forget phone numbers so need to write it down
Other people also have a mind
Other people may have beliefs, desires.

Question 4

How do children develop a theory of the mind? What did .H…..suggest in what year? What 3 things does this definition require?

Answer 4

Harris 1989- Understanding other people results from understanding yourself in their position.

Self-awareness- 18/20mon
Capacity for pretence- pretend play emerges by age 2.
Ability to distinguish real from pretend- 3/4yr. Beforehand children don’t know if others are pretending or not.

Question 5

According to Harris theory regarding self-awareness, capacity for pretence and ability to tell real from pretend??
Final statement?

Answer 5

1- Kids become aware of their own mental state.
2- They project their mental states on inanimate objects symbolic play.
3- The imagined mental state of other people can differ from their own.

Work out others behaviour by simulation, hypothetical putting themselves in others position.

Question 6

How does visual recognition evidence show development of theory of mind? Which study was it done by?

Answer 6

Lewis, Brooks- Gunn (1979) Rouge experiment.
9-24 months placed infront of a mirror, mother wipes nose.
Younger than 15mon didn’t touch their own nose.
Over 15 months did touch their own nose.
Aware that it is them in the mirror.

Question 7

When Lewis, Brooks-Gunn asked how did the kids recognise themselves what did they find? 2 aspects, 2 findings.

Answer 7

Contingency cues- mirror image moves with self-produced motion
Feature cues- Stable facial, bodily features.
Founds:- Recognition of self develops gradually over 1st 2 years. Early recognition uses contingency cues (Prefer self on live video).
Use feature cues over 15 months, prefer picture of themselves to others.

Question 8

How do children become consistent with themselves over time? Who conducted this study?

Answer 8

Poverelli et al 1996
2-4 year olds.
Large sticker on the kids head, photographed them.
7 min delay then showed the picture.
Only children over 3 reached for the sticker.

Means young children not realise self in the past is till the self.
Awareness of continues existence of self is limited before 3-4yr

Question 9

How does evidence from children speech show development of theory of mind?

Answer 9

At 2 years, kids can use words such as ‘I’ ‘me’, and correctly reverse ‘i’ and ‘you’ when listening to others.
Suggests that self-conceptt is quite well formed when these language development occurs.

Summary??
Self awareness does not emerge in an all-nothing way. Contingency cues give way to feature cues, and awareness of self over time develops.

Question 10

What evidence is there that understanding the self is important for understanding others? (2 things)

Answer 10

Empathy

Deception

Question 11

Who did the study on empathy, what year, what happened?

Answer 11

(Bischof-Kohler 1988)
Self-awareness and empathy. Testing 16-24month.
First completed the ‘rouge test’, then an empathy test. Found a strong correlation.

Question 12

When does empathy emerge?

Answer 12

20 months. - emergence of self-awareness

Question 13

How is deception linked to understanding others? What does it require?

Answer 13

It requires us to know that other people can have different beliefs from our own.

Question 14

What are the 2 studies on deception, who, year, what?

Answer 14

1. Cole (1986) 3/4 yr olds who rated a gift from best to worst. Then given a picture task, then they are given the best gift, then the worst gift. When the interviewer wasn’t there, kids showed disappointment BUT when he was there, most hid their sadness= deliberate intent to deceive.
2. Lewis et al (1989) 3 yr olds told not to peek at a surprise toy. Videotaped, and 29 out of 33 peeked. When asked 11 admitted, 11 denied 7 didn’t answer. Seekers smiled more than non-peelers, showed a more relaxed demeanour. = 3 yr can engage in deliberate verbal + facial deception.

Question 15

What are the 2 tests on false-belief?

Answer 15

Sally-Ann task, Smarties task.

Question 16

Who, year, what in the two false-belief tasks?

Answer 16

1, Sally-Ann. (Baron Cohen 1985)- 2 dolls, sally puts ball in basket, ann puts in box, ‘where will sally look for ball?’. 4 yrs = Basket. 3yrs old = Box, doesn’t understand sally has a different belief to their own.
2. Smarties task- (Perner et at 1987) Unopened smarty box, ‘whats in the box?’ there are pencils insides, closes again ‘what will your friend think is in the box?’ 4 yr old = smarties. 3 yr old = pencils.
ALSO
(Gopnik, Astingtzon 1988) asked, ‘when you first saw the box, what did you think it contained?’ 3 yr= pencils- not understand they once had a different belief from current.

Question 17

Whats the difference between 2/3 years old in theory of mind?

Answer 17

2 yr = Use words referring to perception, emotion (want, see look)
3 yr= Refer to cognition (Know, think, remember).

Question 18

What are the three questions in knowledge of mind before 4?

Answer 18

Can children…

1. Distinguish between mental representations and the physical world.
2. Understand the link between seeing & knowing.
3. Understand the appearance-reality distinction?

Question 19

What 2 studies analysed whether children can distinguish between mental representations and the physical world? Who, year, what.

Answer 19

(Shatz et al 1983) Examined 3 yr old speech. = distinguish mental states from physical states (I thought it was an alligator, now I know it’s a crocodile.
(Wellman & Estes 1986). 3 yrs olds, 2 characters, 1 with biscuit, other thinking about biscuit. Asked, ‘which of the biscuits can be touch, can be seen by the other, seen by the character?” 3/4 of 3 yr responses indicated they CAN distinguish between mental and physical states.

Question 20

What 2 studies analysed whether kids understand the link between seeing /knowing? AND which study expanded on this? Who, what, when?

Answer 20

Begin around 2 yr olds.
(Lempers et al 1988) 2 yr olds to show another person a picky glued in a box, they oriented the box so the other could see. By 3 realise if they hide an object, others can’t see.
(Masangkay et al 1974) Double-sided pic card, child’s experimenter see opposite sides, asked kids. 3 yr olds responded correctly.
(Masangkay et al 1974) Tested 3,4 5 yr because understanding that different people can have different views of the same object comes later.
Childs+ adult sit opposite, both view pic of turtle, ‘do you see the turtle on its feet or upside down? Adult?’
All ages identified own view, 4 yr understood each person has different view.

Question 21

What study analysed whether children understand the appearance-reality distinction?

Answer 21

Children need to learn how physical states relate to mental states.
(Flavell, Flavell/ Green 1983) 3,4,5 yr given deceptive object (sponges painted like rocks) asked what it looks like and what they ‘really’ are.
Most 4/5 answered correctly, 3 yr said objects look and are rocks.
Only 4/5 year old can represent an object in terms of it’s appearance and what it is.

Question 22

Although most children completed false belief task around 4-5 what factors affect performance? + what studies. 3 things

Answer 22

Wording of task- (Lewis, Osborne 1990) changed the smarties task to ‘what will your friend think is in the box BEFORE she opens the lid’ some 3 yr old succeed.

Language skills: (Jenkins, Astingtzon 1996) Kids with delayed language skills are delayed in false belief. Woof et al 2002 some fead kids delayed in false belief.

Type of social interaction (Lewis et al 1996) collected data on kids relationships too, found those with higher score on false belief tend to interact more with adults_ have older friends. Suggests interaction with older people allow children to develop theory of mind skills at younger age.

Question 23

What 3 things do children after 4 understand about the mind?

Answer 23

2nd order belief.
Understanding the link between emotion, theory of mind.
Ability to plant false beliefs: deception.

Question 24

Describe each study, year, about after 4 yrs.

Answer 24

2nd order: Sally Ann task is a 1st order belief, “I believe that person A believes X” But second order involves “I believe that person A believes that person B believes X” (Perner Wimmer 1985) Children can only succeed around 6 yrs.

Emotion/theory of mind:( Harris 1989) Ellie elephant only likes drinking coke, mickey empties coke can, fills with milk. How will Ellie feel when she tastes drink? 4 yrs olds understand she’s sad therefore have a false belief. BUT “How will Ellie feel when Mickey gives her the drink, before tasting it? Only 6 yrs old correctly say ‘happy’. Suggests 4 yrs olds understand behaviour but not emotion until 6.

Deception:- (Peskin 1992) 3,4,5, yr shown 4 stickers told can have favourite but 2 puppets choose first. Puppet 1 is nice and never takes favourite, but puppet 2 will. Puppets asks kids which is their favourite? 5 yr olds lie to ‘mean puppy’ but 3/4 tell truth. After repetition 4 years learnt to lie. Suggests younger kids not able to generate false belief in another person.

Question 25

What are the 2 different approachs to development of theory of mind>

Answer 25

1. Importance of reasoning.

2. Importance of representational ability.

Question 26

Describe importance of reasoning theory?

Answer 26

(Harris 1989) Understanding own emotions, projecting them onto other is the basis.
Allows childs to hypothesis about reasons for those emotions ‘simulation’.
Simulation involved reasoning about situations that do not exist. ‘counterfactual reasoning;.
Suggests, young children failure in false belief tasks may be due to limitations in reasoning abilities.

Question 27

Describes important of representational ability theory?

Answer 27

(Wellman 1990) 2 yr old- not able to form representation of other beliefs.
3yr- able to represent other beliefs, but only as a true copy of the world.
4ys- Realise beliefs represent an interpretation of the world, not a true copy.
They of mind development as passing through progressively more advanced stages of representational ability.