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Sociology A2 > Theory and Methods > Flashcards

Theory and Methods Flashcards

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Sociology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What kind of theory is functionalism?

A

A macro, consensus theory. They believe society is structured top down.

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2
Q

What is the organic analogy?

A

Society functions like a body, all the organ have a specific function which are necessary to the maintenance of the whole. All institutions work together to create social solidarity and value consensus.

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3
Q

Who theorised the organic analogy?

A

Parsons

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4
Q

What are the four functional prerequisites?

A
  1. Goal attainment
  2. Adaptation
  3. Integration
  4. Latency
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5
Q

Explain Latency

A

The aim of this subsystem is to stabilise adult personalities, the family, warm bath theory.

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6
Q

Explain Integration

A

The aim of this subsystem is to bring all of society together through shared norms, values and beliefs. The media must create social cohesion.

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7
Q

Explain Goal attainment

A

The aim of this subsystem is to make sure as a society we are working towards one common goal and provide the means to achieve this.

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8
Q

Explain adaptation

A

The economy must adapt to meet the needs of society at the time- functional fit theory.

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9
Q

What is moving equilibrium?

A

Societies ability to change so they can retain a degree of balance in order to continue to function effectively.

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10
Q

Althusser suggested that capitalist society was made up of 3 interlocking elements. What are they?

A
  1. The economic system, producing all the material goods
  2. The political system, organising society
  3. The ideological system, providing all ideas and beliefs
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11
Q

What is relative autonomy?

A

The idea that the economic system has ultimate control but the political and ideological have degrees of autonomy. Politics and culture changes in response to many different forces not just economic ones.

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12
Q

What is the repressive state apparatus?

A

Organisations such as the police and the army

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13
Q

What is the ideological state apparatus?

A

The more subtle organisations e.g education, media and religion

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14
Q

What is hegemony?

A

When the state gains consent from large sections of the population to cement its dominance and maintain control e.g welfare state, health and safety laws

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15
Q

What does Gramsci believe has to happen for capitalism to stop?

A

The proletariat must develop counter hegemony to combat the beliefs of capitalism and nominate an organic intellectual to speak out on behalf of the proletariat.

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16
Q

What is means of mental production?

A

The majority accept inequalities because of the way the state justify them as fair and just

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17
Q

What did Marx believe was going to happen?

A

The means of production would get so concentrated that class polarisation would occur and become so extreme the proletariat would reach a state of full class consciousness.

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18
Q

What are the characteristics of modern society?

A
  1. Nation State which governs citizens through laws
  2. Capitalism, private ownership of production, wages, laws etc
  3. Rationality, science and technology
  4. Individualism
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19
Q

What is globalisation?

A

The growing interconnectedness between societies due to the rise in technology.

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20
Q

What has globalisation led to?

A

time-space compression, as suggested by Harvey, which is the idea that your place in the world becomes less significant because of the speeding up of communication.

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21
Q

Explain simulacrum

A

Baudrillard suggests simulacrum is where a sign exists without any underlying reality. It is a construct. E.g what is a celebrity?

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22
Q

What is hyperreality?

A

Baudrillard suggests there is a blurring between reality and hyperreality, we don’t know what’s real anymore because our perception of real is so intense and amplified.

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23
Q

What are some major changes due to globalisation?

A
  1. Technological changes, increase in technology
  2. Economic changes, transnational companies, more opportunity to develop
  3. Political changes, more than one nation state
  4. Changes in culture and identity, pick n mix, fluidity, multiculturalism
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24
Q

What is a metanarrative?

A

A big story about how the world works and how it can be improved, Lyotard’s idea

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25
Q

Describe Foucault’s idea of discourse

A

Social institutions tell us what to think about the world and we just accept it as right.

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26
Q

What is risk society according to Beck?

A

Our awareness of global risk and how it’s too big for humans to control leads us to act in a way which poses the smallest risk.

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27
Q

What is reflexivity?

A

The ability for people to reflect upon their lives and consider different ways to act or live. We question the behaviour of government and technology and protect ourselves against that.

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28
Q

What is individualisation?

A

In late modernity there has been a move towards individualisation, people are open to decision making and people choose their own identity and lifestyle as they make their own lives.

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29
Q

What is pick n mix identity?

A

Due to globalisation and the media we can choose to adopt different tastes, styles of dress and ways of behaving, these can be mixed together with greater hybridity

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30
Q

What does Firestone believe is the source of female oppression?

A

There is a sexual class system resulting from the biological family. Women are at a biological disadvantage because they undergo pregnancy and childbirth which makes them weak and vulnerable. Men have taken advantage of these biological facts and made women dependent on men which enables men to monopolise power in society.

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31
Q

What is the result of biological differences in men and women?

A

There is power psychology in which both men and women believe the dominance of men over women is inevitable.

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32
Q

How does Firestone believe these problems can be overcome?

A

Abolishing pregnancy through the development of artificial wombs thus freeing women from biological constraints

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33
Q

What does Brenston suggest women are used as?

A

A reserve army of labour who are employed on low wages and thrown out of work when capitalists no longer need so many workers.

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34
Q

What does Ansley say women are?

A

The takers of shit because they absorb the frustrations that men feel towards their employers by experiencing physical and verbal abuse.

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35
Q

Feminists are…

A

interpretivists, they reject science as they regard it as malestream.

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36
Q

Why does Sommerville criticise separatism and political lesbianism?

A

Because heterosexual attraction still exists so you can’t fight it.

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37
Q

Why does Engels say capitalism is the reason for gender inequality?

A

Engels states that in early primitive communist societies there was no families and people lived in promiscuous hordes. There was no gender inequality because goods were shared. However when human societies developed the herding of animals, men wanted to pass down their cattle to their offspring but couldn’t be sure of who their offspring were so the institution of marriage started to control women’s sexuality and men became dominant in society.

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38
Q

What does liberal feminist Friedman argue is the reason for gender inequality?

A

Socialisation into distinct gender roles and dominant cultural ideas about masculinity and femininity were perpetuated into the education system leading to the subordination of women.

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39
Q

How do liberal feminists argue this can change?

A

Through encouraging non sexist socialisation and education, passing laws to create equal rights etc, challenging sexism.

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40
Q

What do difference feminists suggest about other types of feminism?

A

It promotes false universality, focuses on experiences of white middle class straight women.

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41
Q

What does difference feminism focus on?

A

The problem of essentialism, no women are the same, all experiences differ according to race, class, religion, sexuality, age.

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42
Q

What is consciousness raising?

A

A solution according to radical feminists which is where women share their problems.

43
Q

What is separatism?

A

Germaine Greer’s idea of women and men living separately instead turning to political lesbianism.

44
Q

What is interpretivism?

A

An approach to research that tries to understand human action through the eyes of those acting. They want to know the meanings given to their actions and what their interpretation of the action is

45
Q

What kind of methods do interpretivists use and why?

A

Respondent led qualitative methods to achieve an indepth insight in order to realise a humanistic understanding from the respondants point of view.

46
Q

What is positivism?

A

An approach to research that tries to get as close to the natural sciences as possible. Their ultimate aim is to uncover the objective social laws which govern human action.

47
Q

What methods do positivists use and why?

A

They use quantitative methods in order to remain detatched from the research process and uncover social trends and correlations which are generalisable to society as a whole.

48
Q

What is reliability?

A

If research is reliable it means if someone else repeats the same research with the same population they should achieve the same results.

49
Q

What is validity?

A

Research is valid if it gives a true picture of what the world is really like

50
Q

What is representativeness?

A

Research is representative if the research sample reflects the characteristics of the wider target population that is being studied.

51
Q

What is primary data?

A

Research collected by the researcher themself

52
Q

What is secondary data?

A

Data that has already been collected by another organisation or researcher

53
Q

What is verstehen?

A

Empathetic understanding

54
Q

What is attrition rate?

A

The number of people that drop out of the research study during the course of that study

55
Q

What is bias?

A

Where someone’s personal feelings, opinions or thoughts affect their judgement

56
Q

What is covert research?

A

Where the researcher is undercover and the participants do not know they are part of a research study.

57
Q

What is overt research?

A

Where the respondants know they are part of a research study

58
Q

What is an experiment?

A

Experiments aim to measure the effect which one or more independent variable has on a dependent variable.

59
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A

The variable being tested and measured in an experiment

60
Q

What is an independent variable?

A

The variable being changed to see the effect on the dependent variable

61
Q

What is an extraneous variable?

A

Undesirable variables which are not in the interest of the researcher but may effect the results

62
Q

What is a field diary?

A

A notebook in which a researcher records observations during the research process

63
Q

What is a field experiment?

A

Experiments that take place in a real-life setting

64
Q

Define going naitive

A

Where a researcher becomes biased or symapthetic towards a group and they lose their objectivity

65
Q

Define the hawthorne effect

A

where respondants alter their behaviour because they know they are being observed

66
Q

Define the imposition problem

A

The imposition limits the validity of social surveys because the respondant may not be able to express their true feelings due to the pre-chosen questions by the researcher which limits their ability to say what they feel is important

67
Q

Define leading questions

A

Where the interviewer subtly prompts the respondant to respond to a question in a certain way. This is one way in which interviewer bias can impact the validity of the research

68
Q

Define operisationalisation

A

The process of defining a concept precisely so it can be easily understood by respondants and measured by the research.

69
Q

Define pilot study

A

A small scale study used to uncover any problems that may arise in the main research programme.

70
Q

Define sample frame

A

A list from which a sample will be drawn

71
Q

Define self-selecting sample bias

A

Where individuals choose whether they take part in the research and the results end up being unrepresentative because certain types of people are more willing to take part in research.

72
Q

Define triangulation

A

Use of more than one method in research in order to verify the validity of the research

73
Q

Define value freedom

A

Where the researcher’s personal opinions, beliefs and feelings are kept out of the research process so that the data collected is not influenced by the personal bias of the research.

74
Q

Define transcription

A

The process of writing (or typing up) what the respondants say in an interview.

75
Q

Define thematic analysis

A

Trying to understand the intentions which lie behind the production of mass media documents by subjecting a particular area of research to detailed investigation.

76
Q

Mead talks about symbols. What is a symbol?

A

A symbol is an object, word, expression or gesture that stands for something and to which individuals have attached some meaning.

77
Q

Mead believes…

A

there are no fixed meanings

78
Q

Describe the idea of symbols versus instincts

A

Our behaviour is not fixed-
meanings are developed, learned, and shared through the process of day to day interactions.
Mead believed that we use symbols to negotiate the world around us - NOT instincts

79
Q

Describe Mead’s idea of the I and me

A 
I= who you really are
Me = the version of yourself you put out into the world
80
Q

What’s successful interaction?

A

The correct interpretation of the symbol

81
Q

How does Mead argue we manage to interpret other people’s meanings?

A

Mead states that we do this by taking the role of the other. We put ourselves in the place of the other person and see ourselves as they see us.

82
Q

Explain Cooley’s idea of the looking glass self

A

Our image of ourselves is reflected back to us (like a mirror) in the views of others. As we consider how others see us we may change our behaviours.

83
Q

How does labelling link to Cooley’s idea of the looking glass self?

A

Through the looking glass self, the label becomes part of the individuals self concept. He / she takes on that role and a self fulfilling prophecy occurs.

84
Q

What does Cooley think about self concept?

A

We can have many selves

85
Q

Goffman’s dramaturgical model sees society as…

A

drama! sis

James Charles is nothing compared to the drama that is society

86
Q

Explain’s goffman’s idea of self concept

A

We are all ‘actors’, acting out ‘scripts’, using ‘props’ to ‘present’ to our ‘audiences’. Resting ‘backstage’ between ‘performances.’

87
Q

How do we use impression management according to Goffman

A

We need to control the impression that people get of us
We do this by seeing how people respond to us, what people think of us and change to meet the ‘character’ we are trying to be in attempt to ‘pass’ for that ‘character.’

88
Q

What did Weber see as necessary for an understanding of human behaviour?

A

An understanding of both structural and action approaches, hence social action theory was born xo

89
Q

Weber attempted to understand human behaviour on an individual level. How did he do this?

A

By gaining verstehen

90
Q

Weber’s explanation of society works on two levels. What are they?

A

Level of cause

Level of meaning

91
Q

What is the level of cause? (Weber)

A

objective structural factors that shape people’s behaviour.

92
Q

What is the level of meaning (Weber)

A

subjective meaning that individuals attach to their actions.

93
Q

Weber classifies the actor’s individual actions into 4 categories what are they?

A

1) Value-Rational Action
2) Affectual Action
3) Instrumentally Rational Action
4) Traditional Action

94
Q

Define Value Rational Action

A

Value driven- Unlike instrumental rational, there is no way calculating whether the means of achieving the goals is effective (not rational). E.g James Charles praying to God that he gains them 3 million subscribers back

95
Q

Define Affectual Action

A

Action that expresses emotion such a grief or anger. E.g James Charles’ crying apology

96
Q

Define Instrumentally Rational Action – Goal driven.

A

The actor calculates the most efficient ‘rational’ means of achieving a given goal. Whether desirable or not it is the most effective way of achieving something e.g James Charles getting a sugar bear hair brand deal

97
Q

Define Traditional Action

A

Involves customary, routine or habitual actions. The actor does it unthinkingly because ‘we have always done it’.
E.g James Charles seducing straight men

98
Q

What did Weber find?

A

Society has become increasingly
dominated by goal-oriented rationality.
Less and less by tradition, values or emotions.

99
Q

What is Giddens’ structuration theory?

A

‘Duality of structure ‘
Structure and action are two sides of the same coin;
neither can exist without the other.
Therefore, there is no point in discussing them as two separate theories.

100
Q

How is language an example of structuration theory?

A

Language is STRUCTURAL E.g. the rules of grammar

BUT! Language requires ACTION! We give words meaning and INTEPRET these!

101
Q

Criticise Gidden’s structuration theory

A

Archer argues that Giddens underestimates the capacity of structures to resist change. E.g London Riots

102
Q

Explain phenomenology

A

Phenomenology emphasises that all information about the social world is the product of the human mind.
No hard facts about the world on which to base explanations, all you can do is try to understand the meangings that people give to the world by categorising it in different ways.

103
Q

To make sense of a chaotic world around them individuals…

A

organise the world into phenomena

Sociology A2 (3 decks)

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