Theory and Methods Flashcards
Structuralism
An approach focusing on the large-scale social structures in which people play defined roles.
Macro/micro approaches
Macro approaches focus on the large scale of whole societies,micro approaches on small-scale social interaction.
Correlation
When two variables are related to each other but causation cannot be proved;for example, ill-health is related to poverty. This is not a casual relationship because some sick people are not poor and some poor people are not sick
Causation
Where a strict link can be proved between variables in a time sequence; such as, heating water to 100°C causes it to boil. Causation is hard to find in sociology.
Interpretivism
Approaches that start at the level of the individual, focusing on small-scale phenomena and usually favouring qualitative methods.
Identity
How a person sees themselves, and how others see them, for example as a girl and a student.
Perspectives
Ways of viewing social life from different points of view.
Consensus
Basic agreement on a set of shared values.
Conflict
Disagreement between groups with different interests.
Positivism
An approach to sociology based on studying society in a scientific manner.
Quantitative data
Information and facts that take a numerical form.
Bias
Prejudice that distorts the truth when research is influenced by the values of the researcher or by decisions taken about the research, such as the sampling method used.
Objectivity
Absence of bias; the researchers do not allow their values or feelings to influence the research.
Hypothesis
A theory or explanation at the start of research that the research is designed to test.
Pilot study
A small-scale test of a piece of a research project before the main research.
Survey population
All those to whom the findings of the study will apply and from which a sample is chosen.
Sampling frame
A list of members of the population from which the sample is chosen.
Generalisability
When the findings about a sample can be said to apply to a larger group of people sharing their characteristics.
Random sampling
When each person has an equal chance of being selected.
Stratified sample
When the sampling frame is divided, for example, by gender or age.
Quota sampling
Deciding in advance how many people with what characteristics to involve in the research and then identifying them.
Snowball sampling
When one respondent puts the researcher in contact with others.
Sampling methods
The different ways in which samples can be created.
Ethical issues
Issues that have a moral dimension, such as when harm or destress may be caused to the participants.
Questionnaires
A standardised list of questions used in social surveys.
Social surveys
The systematic collection of information from a sample, usually involving a questionnaire or structured interviews.
Open, closed and pre-coded questions
Closed or pre-coded questions are those where the researcher has set out which responses can be recorded. In open questions the respondent can reply freely in their own words to give their responses.
Respondent
Someone who provides information to researchers, usually used for surveys and interviews rather than other methods.
Qualitative data
Information and facts (like attitudes or kinds of actions) that are not able to be presented in numerical form.
Self-completion questionnaires
Questionnaires that are completed by the respondent on their own, with the researcher not present.
Postal questionnaires
Self-completion questionnaires that are sent out and returned by post.
Response rate
The proportion of responses obtained out of a sample.
Structured interview
An interview in which the questions are standardised (the same questions asked in the same order) and the replies codified to produce quantitative data.
Telephone questionnaires
When the researcher reads the questions to a respondent over the telephone and records their answers.
Reliability
When the research can be repeated and similar responses will be obtained.
Validity
When the findings accurately reflect the reality that it is intended to capture.
Unstructured interview
An interview without set questions that usually involves probing into emotions and attitudes, leading the qualitative data.
Semi-structured interview
An interview with some standardised questions but allowing the researcher some flexibility on what is asked in what order.
Focus group
A group brought together to be interviewed on a particular topic (the focus); a special type of group interview.
Group interview
Any interview involving a group interviewed together.
Interviewer bias
Intentional or unintentional effect of the way that the interviewer asks questions or interpret answers.
Interviewer effect
Ways in which an interviewer may influence participants’ responses, by their characteristics or appearance or by verbal cues such as facial expressions and tone of voice.
Subjectivity
Lack of objectivity; the researcher’s view influences the approach taken.
Laboratory experiment
Experiments taking place in a laboratory, that is, an artificial setting created for the research where external variables are excluded as far as possible.
Hawthorne or Observer Effect
The unintended effects of the researcher’s presence on the behaviour or responses of participants.
Field experiments
Experiments that take place in the natural setting of the real world rather than in a laboratory.
Case study
A detailed in-depth study of one group or event.
Longitudinal survey
A survey taking place at intervals over a long period.
Overt participant observation
When the group being studied is aware that research is taking place and of who the researcher is.
Covert participant observation
Covert means ‘hidden’; in such research the group being studied is unaware of the research and is deceived into thinking the researcher is a real member of the group.
Non-participant observation
When the researcher observes a group but does not participate in what it is doing.
Content analysis
A method of studying communication and the media, which involves classifying the content and counting frequencies.
Triangulation
Use of two or more methods in the same research project.
Representativeness
The degree to which research findings about one group can be applied to a larger group or similar groups.
Primary data
Information collected by the sociologist at first hand.
Secondary data
Information collected earlier by others and used later on by a sociologist.
Official and non-official statistics
Official statistics are produced by government and official agencies, non-official statistics are produced by other organisations, such as charities and think tanks.
Trend
A change over time in a particular direction.
Comparative study
In research, looking at two or more different groups or events in terms of their similarities and differences.
Historical documents
A wide range of documents from the past used as sources of information by sociologists.
