Theory and History Flashcards
What is the RILM Abstracts of Musical Literature and describe the resources it provides.
Repertoire International de Litterature Musicale is an international database founded in 1967 focused on scholarship from around the world relating to any aspect of the musical discipline including:
- Historical Musicology
- Ethnomusicology
- Instruments
- The Voice
- Music Therapy
- Dance
The international bibliography contains:
- Books
- Catalogs
- Masters’ Theses
- Doctoral Dissertations
- Articles
- Films/Videos
- Conference Proceedings
- And more
Entries are presented in the original language with an english translation of the title, an abstract, and the full bibliographic data. The searchable online data base covers over 780,000 entries in over 117 languages.
It requires a subscription and is regularly updated.
Define the Repertoire International de Sources Musicales Online and describe the resources it provides.
The RISM is a musical database founded in Paris in 1952. It is one of the largest non-profit organizations of its kind and operates internationally to document musical sources from around the world.
RISM publications are divided into 3 series.
SERIES A
Arranged by composer and included printed music (Series A/I) and music manuscripts (Series A/II)
SERIES B
Arranged by topic - ancient Greek music theory or manuscripts in lute tablature.
SERIES C
An index of music libraries, private collections, and archives from around the world.
The largest portion of the RISM inventory is Series A/II, consisting of over 380,000 manuscripts by over 18,000 composers, theorists, and librettists after 1600. Series A/II is now an online searchable database. It lists the composer or author’s name, title, origin, and holding library for every entry.
Describe the roles of each instrument family within the Classical orchestra in regards to melody and accompaniment.
In the Classical era, music became highly homophonic with a focus on melody and accompaniment textural form. To accommodate for the change in compositional form, the Classical orchestra shifted the way it used certain instrument families.
In the Baroque era, strings and winds were often doubled to play certain lines. With the advent of melodic authority, first violins were now the dominant string section while the lower strings became the supporting background harmonically and rhythmically. Wind parts were simplified from the Baroque contrapuntal (counterpoint) lines and were now supporting background harmonies as well.
As the Classical era progressed, Mozart eventually resulted in the wind section’s melodic role within the orchestra. During the Classical era, the bassoon became increasingly independent, as opposed to the previous Baroque setting of the bassoon as part of the bass line. Brass also began to be used in a greater independent capacity during the Classical period.
Compare and contrast the desired timbre for classical singing traditions and popular music traditions.
Both classical and popular vocal music traditions strive to create a beautiful sound through singing. However, because of differing aesthetics, the two different traditions hold many different vocal techniques.
CLASSICAL SINGING
The mouth cavity is trained to have a high palate as in a yawn to create an open, formal sound.
Classical singers are encouraged to use a rich, wide vibrato to add to the color of the singing tone. They focus on producing pure vowel tones and clear consonants.
POPULAR SINGING
There is much more flexibility to the shape of the mouth, and many singers use both high and low palates to manipulate the different vocal sounds.
Popular singers use less vibrato in their songs and use a wide variety of sounds, timbres, and techniques such as the rasp, growl and edge to achieve emotional range.
List the four conventional parts of four-part harmony and the general ranges for each part.
In four-part harmony, the conventional parts from high to low are soprano, alto, tenor, and bass.
RANGES
Alto : F3 - D5
Soprano : C4 - A5
Tenor : B3 - G4
Bass : E2 - C4
Baritone : G2 - E4
Mezzo-Soprano : A3 - F5
Although many composers use these ranges in writing a piece of four-part harmony, the voice as an instrument remains one of the most complex of instruments, as each individual’s voice can vary drastically in range and ability.
Describe the standard instrumentation of the concert band as prescribed by members of the American Band Association.
The standard instrumentation as prescribed by members of the American Band Association helped to cultivated the concert band as an essential performing ensemble in American musical culture.
With the standardization of concert band instrumentation in the early 20th century, publishers Boosey and Company, and Chappell, helped grow repertoire of concert bands, especially for the school and community setting.
The ABA prescribed the concert band as follows:
2 Flutes
2 Oboes
2 Bassoons
3 Clarinets
1 Bass Clarinet
4 Saxophones
4 Horns
3 Trumpets
3 Trombones
1 Baritone
1 Tuba
3-4 Percussionists
In total, around 40-50 performers.
Compare and contrast the instruments typically found in a concert band and a symphonic band.
Both the concert and symphonic bands employ a wide range of instruments in the woodwind, brass, and percussion family in a wide variety of timbers, colors, and ranges.
Concert Band
- Focuses on popular band music and orchestral transcriptions.
- Prescribed parts for 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 bassoons, 3 clarinets, 1 bass clarinet, 4 saxophones, 4 horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, 1 baritone, 1 tuba, and 3-4 percussionists (around 40-50 performers)
Symphonic Band
- More comparable to a symphonic orchestral in range.
- Tends to have larger sections with a total of 90-120 performers, and may include a string bass, piccolo, English horn, harp, bass trombone, contrabassoon, and/or a saxophone.
List the 4 main clefs commonly used in orchestral writing and the instruments that typically employ each clef.
The 4 main clefs commonly used in orchestral writing are treble, alto, tenor, and bass clefs.
Treble Clef (G-Clef : the spiral of the symbol circles the 2nd line of the staff)
- Violin, woodwinds, high basses, treble range of keyboard instruments.
Alto Clef ( C-Clef : middle point rests on the 3rd line of the staff)
- Viola.
Tenor Clef (C-Clef : middle point rests on the four life of the staff)
- Cello, bassoon, trombone.
Bass Clef (F-Clef : two dots centered above and below the 4th line of the staff)
- Double bass, cello, bassoon, trombone, low brasses, bass range of keyboard instruments.
Describe the physiological mechanisms of singing.
When using the voice as an instrument, it is important to understand the physiological mechanisms involved in producing sound. The three main vocal parts involved in creating sound are the air supply, vibrator, and resonator.
Air supply is taken into the lungs by the inspiratory muscles, especially the diaphragm, the emptied from the lungs by the expiratory muscles.
The vibrators for singing are the vocal folds, held within the voice box or larynx at the top of the trachea. When air passes through the vocal folds through the opening called the glottis, the vocal folds vibrate and produce sound.
The sound passes through the resonators, principally the pharynx and the mouth cavities. These resonators influence the tonal quality of the sound through the cavity shapes and surfaces, as well as the various singing techniques used to alter sound and timbre.
Name and describe the three principal registers commonly referred to in the classically trained voice.
The register of a voice refers to a range of pitches that have a similar tonal quality produced by similar vocal production. In singing, there are 3 general registers.
Men : Chest, head, falsetto
Women : Chest, middle, head
Chest : The lower ranges of the voice and are said to have a heavier tonal quality similar to that of the natural talking voice.
Head/Middle : For women, the upper ranges of the voice and is said to have a lighter tonal quality that is not falsetto.
Falsetto/Head : For women, refers to the highest ranges of the voice above the normal speaking voice and is said to have a breathy, airy tonal quality that lacks a lot of overtones.
Describe how sound is produced on percussion instruments.
Percussion instruments produce sound by being hit, scraped, or shaken. Certain percussion instruments such as drums, produce sound through the vibration of the membrane around a resonating body.
Membranophones
The membrane/head can be struck by hands or mallets as well as rubbed or scraped.
Idiophones
Instruments that produce vibrations without the aid of air, string, or membranes. There are multiple types of idiophones: concussion, percussion, rattles, scrapers, and friction.
Concussion Idiophones
Two instruments that are struck together (rhythm sticks, castanets, claves)
Percussion Idiophones
Instruments struck by mallets (marimbas, bells, gongs, xylophones)
Rattles
Instruments that are shaken (maracas, egg shakers)
Scrapers
Instruments that are stroked across a notched surface (washboards, guiros)
Friction Idiophones
Instruments are played by rubbing (musical saw, glass harmonica)
Describe how sound is produced on brass instruments.
Brass instruments typically produce sound through the buzzing of the player’s lips as the air travels through tubular, expanding metallic wind instrument. The lips act as a vibrating valve that produces oscillating air and pressure. As the air vibrates through the tubular instrument, some of the energy is lost as viscous and thermal energy, while the rest emerges from the instrument as sound.
Brass instrument almost all consist of a tube that get larger towards the end of the tube called the bell. The tube is often coiled so that the instrument is easier for the player to hold. Brass instruments resonate at certain frequencies more easily than others, so to produce over tones, players can change the length of the instruments through valves or slides.
Narrower, more cylindrical brass instruments like the trumpet and the trombone produce sharp and clear sounds, while wider, larger-belled brass instruments like the French horn and euphonium produce warmer, darker sounds.
Describe monophony, homophony, polyphony, and heterophony.
Monophony
The texture of music that is made up of a single melodic line. The melodic line can be performed by a solo musician or a group of musicians. Examples : plainchant, minnesinger, Meistersinger, and troubadour music.
Homophony
The texture of music that is made up of a main melodic line over a supporting accompaniment. Examples : most modern rock, pop, country, and jazz music.
Polyphony
The texture of music that is made up of many equally important melodic lines. Examples : Renaissance and Baroque music.
Heterophony
The texture of the music that is made up of multiple improvised interpretations of the same melody played at the same time. It mostly occurs in non-Western music cultures such as those of East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East.
Define ternary form.
Ternary Form (ABA)
The structure of a musical composition with regard to thematic, tonal, dynamic, and textural structure.
Ternary form consists of 3 main sections, in which the first and third sections are nearly identical with a contrasting second section.
The first section is labeled A, presents the home/tonic key of the composition and returns at the end of the composition in the third section, also labeled A.
The middle section, labeled B, is usually in a related key and cadences in the same key or another closely related key before the third section begins.
In ternary form, sections may repeat but it isn’t required. The middle section is usually distinctly different.
Ternary form is considered to be a closed form, since all three sections could exist independently.
Describe 12-tone music and it’s origin.
12-tone music is a system of musical theory in which a composition is based on a serial ordering of all 12 pitches that stipulates the sequence in which those 12 pitches should appear in the composition.
The 12-tone system of music arose as a result of growing distain for traditional tonal music. This theory of composition became a way for music to be planned in an abstract manner, into a serial row that establishes the pitch structure of the resulting compositions. Rows can be manipulated throughout the composition through retrograde, inversion, or retrograde-inversion. The rows can also be transposed to start on a different pitch wherein the same intervallic relationship of the row is kept intact.
Arnold Schoenberg, a leading Austrian composer of the Second Viennese School, began to develop this theory of composition in the early 1920’s and continued to compose 12-tone music through the twentieth century.
Define, then compare and contrast the whole tone and chromatic scales.
Whole Tone Scale
A scale in which every pitch is separated by a whole-step. Within Western musical tonality, there are two different whole tone scales, each made up of 6 pitches. The whole tone scale could be one of these two options:
C - D - E - F# - G# - A# or C# - D# - F - G - A - B
Chromatic Scale
A scale in which every pitch is separated by a half-step. Within Western musical tonality, the chromatic scale includes all 12 pitches of an octave.
Both whole tone and chromatic scales lack a clear tonal center, as either of the scales could start on any key without any definite hierarchy to the pattern. However, composers tend to use the chromatic scale as a tool to increase complexity, while the whole tone scale is a useful tool to give a feeling of vague spaciousness.
Describe a tone cluster and the origin of the term.
Tone Cluster
A group of closely spaced notes played simultaneously, usually in intervals of adjacent seconds and groupings or ‘clusters.’ The term usually refers to stacks of more than two neighboring notes, with three being the minimum. Tone clusters can be diatonic, chromatic, and dia-chromatic.
Diatonic Tone Clusters
Only neighboring notes in the diatonic key are used.
Chromatic Tone Clusters
Notes that are separated by a half-step are used.
Dia-Chromatic tone Clusters
Both diatonic seconds and chromatic notes are used.
Tone clusters appeared rarely in music before the 1900’s and weren’t considered a definitely compositional tool until the 1900’s. The concept of a ‘tone cluster’ was termed by American composer Henry Cowell in the 1920’s and appears in compositions by Western classical composers such as Charles Ives, Bela Bartok, Lou Harrison, Henry Cowell, along with Oliver Messiaen, Karlheinz Stockhausen, and George Crumb. Tone clusters are also found in jazz and popular music.
Describe the difference between a tonal and real answer to a fugal subject.
In a real answer to a fugal subject, the theme is transposed exactly note to note in the dominant key.
In a tonal answer to a fugal subject, the theme is transposed loosely in the dominant key, modified so as to maintain harmonic congruity or to facilitate modulations.
The fugue is a form of imitative counterpoint in which a fugue theme is introduced at the beginning of the work, also known as the exposition, and is echoed in all of the fugal voices through imitation and development.
Fugue
Comes from the Latin ‘fugere’ meaning ‘to flee’ as each voice essentially chases the previous voice. The initial subject is called the leader or dux and is presented in the tonic key. The dux is usually followed by the comes, the companion answer in the dominant key which can be presented in one of two ways.
Define hemiola.
The term hemiola comes from the Greek meaning ‘one and a half’ also known as the ratio of 3:2. Its use in Greek and Latin theory referred to the interval of the fifth, as the fifth is made up of two strings with lengths of 3:2. The term hemiola refers to the rhythm of three notes in a spaces that usually only has two notes, whether in succession or simultaneously.
Horizontal Hemiola
A hemiola in succession
Refers to a change in note values where, for example, three half notes now follow a measure of two dotted half notes in 6/4.
Vertical Hemiola
Hemiola that occurs simultaneously
Refers to a rhythmic syncopation where, for example, three quarter notes are played over two dotted quarter notes in 6/8 meter.
Music theorists prefer to use the Latin term sesquialtera in cases of vertical hemiola as a more accurate representation of the three against-two-rhythms.
List four to five Italian tempo markings and their relative designations.
Adagio - At ease
Slower than andante but faster than largo.
Moderato - Moderately
Relative tempo designation that is faster than andante but slower than allegro.
Presto - Very fast
Generally treated as a very quick tempo, must faster than allegro.
Prestissimo
As fast as possible
Andante
At a walking pace
More ambiguous of a tempo that can be thought of as faster than adagio but slower than allegro.
Allegro
Lively or merry
Fast or a moderately fast tempo
Name all scale degrees and describe how they are usually indicated in musical notation.
A scale degree is an assigned number to the sequential notes of any major or minor scale. Since the Western tonal language is transposable in all keys, this systematic approach to music theory aids comprehensive musical analysis. The pitches of any major or minor scale are number 1-7, usually indicated in upper-case roman numerals for major harmonies and lower-case roman numerals for minor harmonies.
I - ii - iii - IV - V - vi and vii.
Each scale degree is also given a label so that I is the tonic, II is the super tonic, III is the mediant, IV is the subdominant, V is the dominant, VI and is the submediant, and VII is the leaning tone or subtonic.
The scale degrees in Western tonal music function similarly in the diatonic scale, and conventions can be generalized, such as the stable importance of the tonic or the tendency for the the leading tone to progress of the tonic.
Describe imperfect and perfect cadences.
The terms imperfect and perfect apply to the authentic and plagal cadences.
An authentic or plagal cadence classifies as PERFECT if both of the chords are in the root position and the tonic pitch sounds in the highest voice.
An authentic or plagal cadence classifies as IMPERFECT if either of the chords are in an inversion and/or the tonic pitch doesn’t sound in the highest voice.
Perfect Authentic Cadence Example:
V-I with the tonic of the last chord sounding in the highest voice.
Imperfect Authentic Cadence Example:
V6-I with the tonic of the last chord sounding in the highest voice.
Perfect Plagal Cadence Example:
IV-I with the tonic of the last chord sounding in the highest voice.
Imperfect Plagal Cadence Example:
IV-I in which the last chord does not contain the tonic in the highest-sounding voice.
Compare and contrast the relative minor and parallel minor of a certain major key.
The relative minor scale shares the same key signature as the major scale.
The parallel minor shares only the same tonic pitch.
Example : F major has the key signature of one flat. It has the relative minor of d minor as it shares the same key signature. The parallel minor scale of f minor, which shares the same tonic pitch.
In the relative minor, composers can easily modulate to the relative minor by using any of the shared chords, since the key signature is identical for the relative major and minor keys.
Parallel minor keys offer the same dominant chord as the parallel major key but have less in common since the key signatures are unrelated.
Define the following interval types: Perfect, Major, Minor, Diminished, Augmented.
Intervals measure the half-steps (also known as semitones) between any two tones in Western music theory.
A PERFECT INTERVAL only refers to the unison, 4th, 5th, and octave.
When any one of these intervals is lowered by a half-step, it becomes a DIMINISHED INTERVAL.
When any perfect interval is raised by a half-step, it becomes an AUGMENTED INTERVAL.
MAJOR INTERVALS can refer to the 2nd, 3rd, 6th, and 7th intervals.
When any major interval is lowered by a half-step, it becomes a MINOR INTERVAL.
When any minor interval is lowered by a half-step, it becomes a DIMINISHED INTERVAL.
When any major interval is raised by a half-step it becomes an AUGMENTED INTERVAL as well.
Compare and discuss the differences between contrary motion, parallel motion, similar motion, and oblique motion.
These terms all refer to the simultaneous movement of two or more musical lines. The terms can describe vocal and instrumental musical lines.
CONTRARY MOTION: The motion of two musical lines that move in opposite directions.
PARALLEL MOTION : The motion of two lines that move in the same direction, whether upwards or downwards, while maintaining the same interval between the lines.
SIMILAR MOTION : Two musical lines moving in similar directions, not maintaining the interval between the lines.
OBLIQUE MOTION : The motion of two lines in which one stays stationary while the other musical lines moves upward or downward.
Discuss five to seven types of dissonance found in tonal counterpoint.
APPOGIATURA : There is a leap to a dissonance followed by a descending step.
SUSPENSION : A dissonant tone sounds on a downbeat and is then resolved by a downward step.
PASSING TONE : Moves in a stepwise motion through two consonant tones.
NEIGHBOR TONE : Moves in a stepwise motion but returns to the original consonant tone.
ESCAPE TONE : Dissonant note that is approached by step and resolved by a leap in the opposite direction.
Define equal and unequal voice polyphony.
Polyphony refers to the texture of many music that is made up of many equally important melodic lines.
EQUAL-VOICE POLYPHONY : Polyphony that maintains the same thematic material in all the individual voices. An example of this is a canon in which the exact same melodic material enters sequentially after a uniform time interval. Fugues, inventions, and other forms of imitation are also good examples of equal-voice polyphony.
UNEQUAL-VOICE POLYPHONY : Polyphony in which greater importance is given to one or more melodic lines. An example of this would be Medieval cantus firmus compositions that give musical precedence to the cantus firmus, usually sung or played in the tenor voice.
Describe the appropriate sequence in teaching musical units leading to basic composition.
Begin with the elements of notation and the understanding of musical patterns. Students should learn about the treble clef, meter, bar line, measure, staff, octave, and intervals. Explore theme and variation as well as how musical patterns can function.
Start with short 8-measure phrases, working on the sequencing and patterning of music. The teacher should use highly imaginative examples to demonstrate sound patterning, like a percussion interpretation of a thunderstorm or the sound a hopping frog might make.
As students learn to integrate their imagination with musical sounds, the lessons can begin to focus more on musical compositional techniques like transcriptions, cadences, and different tonalities.
Compare and contrast compound and simple meters.
SIMPLE METERS
Cannot be subdivided into smaller groups.
2/4, 4/4, 2/2, 4/2, 5/4, 3/4
COMPOUND METERS
The number of pulses can be subdivided into groups of three.
6/8 has two beats that can be subdivided into six pulses per measure. Here, the dotted quarter note receives the beat, while the 8th note receives the pulse. Other examples include 9/8 and 12/8 meters.
Describe different forms of metrical accenting.
Metrical accenting refers to the natural stresses on certain meats of a meter. In a simple 3/4 meter, the tendency for a metrical accent falls on the first beat. But in certain styles like the Polish Mazurka or other folk dances, the stress may be on the second beat.
In 4/4 meter, there is naturally a primary stress on the downbeat of the measure and a secondary, weaker stress on the 3fd beat.
In certain jazz pieces and world music, the accents may be on the second and 4th beats for stylistic accuracy.
In compound meters like 6/8, 9/8, and 12/8, there’s a natural accent on the first of every group of three 8th notes.
Compare and contrast binary with rounded binary form.
BINARY FORM: Two main sections, both repeated. The first section is labeled A and presents in the tonic key. The second section is A’ (but is more often labeled B) is a precisely modified version of A. The musical material of A’ is often in the dominant key if the tonic was major, or in the relative major key if the tonic was minor.
Simple binary form is considered to be an open form as neither A nor A’ can exist independently.
ROUNDED BINARY FORM : There is a return to the original thematic material of A. The form can be ABA or AA’A. The initial A section as well as A’/B are both repeated as in simple binary form and shouldn’t be confused with ternary form.
Discuss simple and compound musical form, giving examples of each.
SIMPLE MUSICAL FORMS
Tonal works that can be seen as complete and self-contained works that aren’t divisible into other, smaller self-contained works. Examples of simple musical forms are binary and ternary forms. In each of them, there are thematic sections labeled A or B but neither of these sections can be further divided into simple forms.
COMPOUND MUSICAL FORMS
Tonal works that can be seen as a composite form that is made up of other smaller forms such as binary and ternary forms. Example of compound musical forms are sonata movements, symphony movements, and suites.
Minuetto and Trio is another example of a compound musical form. The simple minuetto form surrounds the simple binary Trio form to create an overall ternary compound form.
Describe how to manipulate stringed instruments to produce dynamic changes.
When playing with a bow, the variables that affect dynamics are the speed and pressure of the bow.
LOUDER (MF, F, FF)
The bow must move faster and with more pressure to produce greater amplitudes in the vibrating sound waves.
SOFTER (PP, P, PF)
The bow must move a little slower with less pressure to produce smaller amplitudes in the vibrating sound waves.
When the instruments are plucked, it is often notated in the score as pizzicato. It produces a sharper attack and the dynamics are similarly produced. Heavier plucks produce louder dynamics and softer plucks produce quieter dynamics.
Describe how sound is produced on woodwind instruments.
Woodwind instruments produce sound through vibrations in an enclosed tube. They are set into motion by blowing through single or double reeds across or through an opening.
SINGLE REEDS
Produce a sound when air is blown through a reed that vibrates against the mouthpiece.
Clarinet and Saxophone
Double Reeds
Produce a sound when the air is blown through two reeds that are tied together and vibrate
Oboe, Bassoon, Sarrusophone.
Some woodwind instruments produce sound when the player blows across the opening, like the transverse flute which is held sideways.
Other woodwind instruments produce sound when the player blows directly into an opening, like the whistle and the recorder.
To change the pitch of an instrument, you can shorten or lengthen the air column through covering/uncovering holes and keys.
Name and describe three to four periodical databases.
- JSTOR - Journal Storage
Digital database that holds 32 scholarly journals dedicated to music. It includes Early Music History, Music Analysis, The Musical Quarterly, Perspectives of New Music, The Journal of Musicology, and many others. - THE MUSIC INDEX ONLINE
A source for music periodicals and literature from 1973 to the present. It contains over 655 international music journals. - THE INTERNATIONAL INDEX OF MUSIC PERIODICALS
Indexes over 425 scholarly and popular music periodicals including the International Journal of Music Education, Ethnomusicology, Jazz Education Journal, Rock and Rap Confidential, and Rolling Stone. - RIPM : RETROSPECTIVE INDEX TO MUSIC PERIODICALS
Resource for scholarly writing on music history and culture, holding over 200 music periodicals in its database.
Describe 8-10 dynamic markings commonly used in music.
Pianissimo - Very soft
Piano - Soft
Mezzo Piano - Moderately soft
Mezzo Forte - Moderately loud
Forte - Loud
Fortissimo - Very loud
Crescendo - Play increasingly louder
Decrescendo - Play increasingly softer
Describe how sound is produced on stringed instruments.
Stringed instruments produce sound through the vibrations of the strings on a resonating body, usually made of wood.
The strings, made of nylon, steel, or silk, can be set in motion by plucking, bowing, or striking. As the string sets the surrounding air in motion, it also vibrates the soundboard through the bridge as the resonant vibrator and the audible tone effuses out of the instrument through sound holes.
Pitches on stringed instruments are modified by string tension, thickness, and length. The higher the tension, the thinner and shorter the string, the higher the pitch. The looser the tension, the ticker and longer the string, the lower the pitch.
Strings can be parallel to the soundboard like the lute, guitar, violin, piano, and dulcimer or can be at a right angle to the soundboard like the harp.
Name and describe three to four authoritative encyclopedias and dictionaries of music.
The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music
- A 10-volume series of encyclopedic reference material covering all world music from 1988 and on, generally regarded as the authoritative source for information regarding ethnomusicology.
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians
- First published in 1879 and is the authoritative reference work for western music with over 20 volumes.
The New Grove Dictionary
- Now available online through Grove Music Online and is a part of Oxford Music Online.
Oxford Music Online
- Web resource containing several reference works covering a broad range of musical topics.
The Encyclopedia of Popular Music
- Initiated in 1989, it was a popular music counterpart to the New Grove Dictionary and is an authoritative reference work for all popular music including rock, pop, jazz, hip-hop, reggae, blues, electronica, and metal.
Describe how to manipulate brass instruments to produce dynamic changes.
Dynamics for brass instruments are the product of the volume of air moving through the instrument, aka the velocity. Since sound is produced in brass through the buzzing of the player’s lips, careful attention must be placed on lip technique when performing dynamic changes due to the interaction of the embouchure and the breath.
The tendency of a pitch when moving in the direction of piano to forte, if the embouchure remains steady, is for the pitch to bend sharp or move to the next ‘shelf’ due to the increase in velocity. At lower dynamic ranges, the player must decrease airflow velocity, which requires additional diaphragm support and a firmer embouchure, in order to ensure that the pitch doesn’t fall flat.
Describe the philosophy behind the minimalist movement of the late 1960’s and list representative composers.
Minimalism began as a compositional movement in the late 1960’s as a reaction to traditional goal-oriented, narrative, and representational music of the previous centuries. Minimalist music, an extension of experimental music, often features compositional techniques that emphasize the process of music rather than the motion towards a goal.
Minimalist composers sought to create music that uses a minimal amount of notes, minimal instruments, and minimal focal points so that the music could become more of a wall of sound rather than a goal-oriented mission.
Minimalist music tends to have a consonant harmony, perpetually repeated patterns/drones, interlocking rhythmic phrases and rhythms, and gradual transformation. The form tends to be continuous without well-defined separate sections. Notes may be added to a repeating pattern slowly so that the resulting effect of the music becomes somewhat hypnotic.
Composers include : Steve Reich, Terry Riley, Philip Glass, John Adams, and La Monte Young.
Define and outline the Classical symphonic form, describing characteristics of each section.
The symphony was a major compositional form in the Classical era and refers to a large musical work usually for orchestra or another combination of instruments in four movements. The classical symphonic form has :
- First Movement : Fast
- Usually Sonata Allegro Form (exposition, development, recapitulation) - Second Movement : Slow
- Usually a gentle, lyrical ABA pattern or a theme and variations. - Third Movement : Dance Form
- Typically in a dance form such as the Scherzo or the Minuet and Trio. - Fourth Movement : Fast
- Typically in Rondo or Sonata form in which a principal theme in the tonic key alternates with new episodes : ABACADA, etc.
Describe opera and oratorio, explaining similarities and differences between the two. Include three to five famous operas and oratorios.
Opera began as an art form in the late 16th century and consisted of a staged dramatic work with singers and orchestra.
Oratorios
Began as an art form in the 17th century and became popular in part because of the success of opera and because of religious bans on secular operas during lent. Usually center on religious or ethical subjects.
Operas and oratorios are large-scale musical works that feature dramatic, musical, and narrative elements. They both utilize solo vocalists, chorus, ensembles, and orchestras.
Operas
Usually theatrically staged, while oratorios are not. Usually center on historical, mythological, or other secular plot lines.
Famous Operas
Jacopo Peri’s Daphne
Gioaccino Rossini’s Barber of Seville
Giacomo Puccini’s Madame Butterfly
W.A. Mozart’s The Marriage of Figaro
Guiseppe Verdi’s La Traviata
Gorges Bizet’s Carmen
Famous Oratorios
G.F. Handel’s Messiah
Joseph Haydn’s Creation
Felix Mendelssohn’s Elijah
