Theorists

Question 1

Piaget

What is his theory called and details about it

Answer 1

Cognitive Theory of Development

- it is a dual theory; constructivism and structuralism

Question 2

Piaget
Constructivism (explain it)

Answer 2

o Infants have schemas (basic building blocks of knowledge, defined as ‘a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning’)
o He viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaptation (adjustment) to the world
o This happens through accommodation and assimilation
o Accommodation- adjusting an existing schema
o Assimilation- using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation

Question 3

Piaget

Explain Strucuralism

Answer 3

o The stages to which intellectual development occurs, characterised by cognitive structures
o Believed learning stages are universal regardless of culture
The four stages are Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational and Formal Operations

Question 4

Piaget

Sensorimotor

Answer 4

(0-2)
 Children learn through motor activity and sensory play
 Develop a basic understanding of object permanence and representation thinking
 Ball and blanket study (looks at object permanence)
- 6 sub stages

Question 5

Piaget
Sensorimotor
What are the 6 sub stages?

Answer 5

1. Simple reflexes (0-1 months)
2. Primary circular reactions (1-4 months)
3. Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months)
4. Coordination of secondary reactions (8-12 months)
5. Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months)
6. Internalisation of schemas (18-24 months)

Question 6

Piaget Sensorimotor substages

Answer 6

READ SUBSTAGES DESCRIPTION ON EXAM NOTES

Question 7

Piaget

Preoperational Stage

Answer 7

(2-7)
 Believe in magic
 Egocentric
 Tends to judge situations on appearance alone, without logical reasoning
 Logical reasoning not yet developed
 Develops language and symbolic play
 Centration (only focusing on one thing at a time), animism (inanimate objects=alive), irreversibility, symbolic play
 Three mountains task (measure of egocentrism)

Question 8

Piaget
Preoperational (2-7yrs)
What are the substages

Answer 8

1. Preconceptual thinking (2-4 years)

2. Perceptual/intuitive thinking (4-7 years)

Question 9

Piaget

Concrete Operational

Answer 9

7-11 yrs
 Can think relatively logically but not yet capable of abstract thought
 Conservation tests: conservation of volume/liquids (taller glass=more water), conservation of number and conservation of length
 Goes through a process of decentring (no longer egocentric)
 Can take into account more than one feature at a time
 Can arrange in ascending or descending order (seriation)
 Understand reversibility

Question 10

Piaget

Formal Operational

Answer 10

11+ years
 Capable of abstract thought
 Hypothetical thinking
 The pendulum task

Question 11

Evaluation of Piaget

Answer 11

• Too much emphasis on individual discovery, ignores the roles of others
• The stages may not be as distinct as he proposed, more of a continuum
• Failed to consider the effect that the social setting and culture may have on cognitive development
• Only research he did was based on his children

Question 12

Erikson

overview of theory

Answer 12

• Psychosocial Theory of Development
• Children form a series of psychosocial conflicts on a continuum, how well they face/solve them shapes their outcome
• Aware of the influence of culture on behaviour, emphasising its role
• Behaviour is based on cultural experience
• Shows impact of social experiences across a lifespan
•

Question 13

Erikson
Psychosocial Theory of Development
- some of his beliefs

Answer 13

Erikson firmly believed that the stages are biologically determined, occurring in a fixed order, each with an optimal timeframe. In other words, it is not advisable to push children to achieve adult personalities at an early age, nor to keep them protected from their natural course of development into maturity.
• Regarded play as the means for a child to find out about themselves socially
• The stages are universal, ages at which they pass through stages is fairly universal

Question 14

What are the 8 stages is Eriksons Psychosocial Theory of Development

Answer 14

Trust vs Mistrust (0-1)
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (1-3)
Initiative vs Guilt (3-6)
Industry vs Inferiority (6-12)
Identity vs Role Confusion (12-19)
Intimacy vs Isolation (18-40)
Generativity vs Stagnation (40-65)
Ego Integrity vs Despair (65+)

Question 15

Erikson

Trust vs Mistrust

Answer 15

0-1 years

• infants learn to have confidence that the adults will meet their needs (responsive parenting)
• infants learn to signal and need to trust that an adult will read th eisgnal and respond appropriately eg a cry with no response-increases intensity-no response-eventually stop trying to communicate
• to resolve these feelings of uncertainty the infant looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care
• if the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which they will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatended
• success at this stage leads to the virtue of hope

Question 16

Erikson

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

Answer 16

1-3 years
 Children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.
 The child is discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child’s growing sense of independence and autonomy.
 Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.
 For example, rather than put on a child’s clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance. So, the parents need to encourage child to become more independent whilst at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided
 If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.
 If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own abilities

Question 17

Erikson

Initiative vs Guilt

Answer 17

3-6 years)
 Children assert themselves more frequently
 Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others
 If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions
 If the initiative is not supported (either criticised or controlled), children develop a sense of guilt
 They feel like a nuisance to others and will remain followers, lacking self-initiative
 Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose

Question 18

Erikson

Industry vs Inferiority

Answer 18

6-12
 It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the child’s self esteem
 The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society, and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments
 If children= encouraged + reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals
 If initiative= not encouraged, (restricted by parents/teacher) then child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential
 If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g. being athletic) then they may develop a sense of inferiority
 Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty.
 Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.

Question 19

Erikson

Identity vs Role Confusion

Answer 19

12-18
 individual wants to belong to a society and fit in
 It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is
 they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations
 Failure to establish a sense of identity within society (“I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up”) can lead to role confusion
 Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society

Question 20

Erikson

Intimacy vs Isolation

Answer 20

18-40
 Begin to share ourselves more intimately with others
 We explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with someone other than a family member
 Successful completion of this stage can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship
 Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression
 Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love

Question 21

Erikson

Generativity vs Stagnation/self-absorption

Answer 21

40-65
 Each adult must find some way to satisfy and support the next generation
 We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations
 By failing to achieve these objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive
 Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care

Question 22

Erikson

Ego Integrity vs Despair

Answer 22

65+
 The culmination is a sense of acceptance of oneself and feel a sense of fulfilment
 we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life
 if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness
 Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom.
 Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear

Question 23

Evaluations of Erikson

Answer 23

• Relatable, seems correct (face validity)
• Includes the whole lifespan
• vague about the causes of development.

Question 24

Bronfenbrenner

Theory name and details

Answer 24

Theory of Ecological Systems

• The idea that factors effecting development occur at five different levels
• Explains how a child’s environment influences a child’s development
• Views the child as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment”
• Different ideologies and cultures impact on development
• Child contributes to own development as a result of interactions and relationships in varying environments.

Question 25

Bronfrenbrenner | Beliefs about the environment

Answer 25

- Believes children are both products and producers of the environment in a network of interdependent effects. - Changes of environment - Moving house or school - Recognises that many factors influence children’s development (genetics, hereditary) - The idea that factors effecting development occurs at five different levels

Question 26

Bronfrenbrenner | What are the five Levels called

Answer 26

``` Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem ```

Question 27

Microsystem (Bronfrenbrenner)

Answer 27

 Immediate environments (family, school, peer group).  The individual helps to construct experiences in this level  Adults affect child’s behaviour, but children’s genetically and socially modified characteristics also affect the adults  Family, school, peers

Question 28

Mesosystem (Bronfrenbrenner)

Answer 28

 The connections between the levels (particularly micro and exo)  Eg the relation between a child’s home and school. Often shaped by their microsystem, Parents support school, students receive support school

Question 29

Exosystem (Bronfrenbrenner)

Answer 29

 Indirect contact system  External environmental settings, which only indirectly effect development.eg mass media, neighbours, legal services, family and friends  A mother gets a new job and must spend time on the road, effecting her relationship with her husband and in turn a child’s experience at home

Question 30

Macrosystem (Bronfrenbrenner)

Answer 30

 Larger cultural context attitudes and ideologies of the culture (national economy, political culture, east vs west culture)

Question 31

Chronosystem (Bronfrenbrenner)

Answer 31

 Changes in life events can be imposed on the child  Eg moving, birth of a sibling, entering school  Time, socioeconomic background, divorce, war  The patterning of environmental events and transitions over the course of life as well as sociohistorical circumstances (war, genocide, drought…)

Question 32

Evaluations of Bronfrenbrenner

Answer 32

- Does not distinguish between nature and nurture | - it can be quite reductive to see nearly every aspect of being as a result of context

Question 33

Vygotsky | Theory Name and details

Answer 33

Socio-Cultural Theory - learning occurs through social interactions and their culture, along with language - through ‘dialogues’ we socially interact and communicate with others to learn the cultural values of our society - Children are born with a wide range of perceptual, attentional and memory capacities which are transformed in the context of socialisation and education, through the use of cultural inventions such as tools, social , structures and language - Believed human activities take place in cultural settings and cannot be understood apart from these settings, therefore our culture shapes our cognition

Question 34

Vygotsky | what are the three main aspects to his theory

Answer 34

More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) Scaffolding Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Question 35

Vygotsky | ZPD

Answer 35

Zone of Proximal Development  Difference between what a child can do themselves and what they can do with help from others (generally in the form of an MKO)  Difference between current and potential knowledge

Question 36

Vygotsky | Scaffolding

Answer 36

 Similar to ZPD  Breaking it down to make it easier to understand; modelling, feedback, instructing, cognitive development and contingency management.  It basically condenses the information and makes it more manageable for the child to learn. The MKO can utilise scaffolding in order to teach the child and bridge the gap in the ZPD.

Question 37

Vygotsky | Beliefs about language

Answer 37

- Llanguage theories: self-talk, private speech, social speech, inner speech - Vygotsky believes speech is a sequential way of representing thought

Question 38

Vygotsky | - how do others affect an individuals learning

Answer 38

- Society encourages learning - Children’s Interactions with adults enable them to form ideas and speech - Knowledge created through interactions - Mental functions developed through interaction with teachers, class mates, family and friends

Question 39

Vygotsky | Explain Elementary or Lower Mental Functions

Answer 39

 Children are born with these functions and so have the ability to learn. Lower mental functions include attention, sensation, perception and memory. This basic biology of a child is important for the child to be able to learn.  Eventually, through interaction within the socio-cultural environment, these are developed into more sophisticated and effective mental processes/strategies which he refers to as Higher Mental Functions. These higher mental processes can be learned by a person who is more knowledgeable that the learner, this can be an adult or a peer

Question 40

Evaluation of Vygotsky

Answer 40

- Perhaps the main criticism of Vygotsky's work concerns the assumption that it is relevant to all cultures. Rogoff (1990) dismisses the idea that Vygotsky's ideas are culturally universal and instead states the concept of scaffolding - which is heavily dependent on verbal instruction - may not be equally useful in all cultures for all types of learning. Indeed, in some instances observation and practice may be more effective ways of learning certain skills. - He did not address the cognitive processes that play a part in child development