theorists Flashcards
Robert Lowth
- grammatical change
- believed language was in state of decay
Johnathon Swift
- believed we needed to regulate/standardize English
- concerned by laziness of English
Johnson dictionary
- 1755
- one of the first major attempts to fix and stabilise language
- ‘no dictionary of a living tongue can ever be perfect’
Webster’s dictionary
- 1832
- wanted to establish model of American English that was equal if not superior to British English
Micheal Halliday: Functional Theory
- language changes purposefully to suit users
- there is a logic to language change
Charles Hockett Random fluctuation theory
- change is not logical but random
- language changes in response to the ever changing context of language use and its users themselves
- random mistakers lead to language changing
David Crystal: Tide Metaphor
- language is never the same and always moving
- language is changing naturally
Wave model
- ripples represent change spreading from central point
- as ripples spread they become weaker
Atchison’s metaphors: damp spoon syndrome
implies people have become lazy with language
Atchison’s metaphors: Crumbling castle view
- language is an ornate building that once had a peak of perfection but is now falling apart
Aitchinson’s metaphors: Infectious disease assumption
- people pick up language change to try to fit in
Kachru’s concentric Circles Approach
there are three circles of English:
- the inner circle, UK US: lang norms are developed here
- the outer circle, India: own variations of English are developing
- the expanding circle, China, Russia: English used to communicate in business, politics and other practical purposes
Schneider’s dynamic model
- how a new variety of English develops:
1. Foundation = English brought to new territory
2. Exonormative Stabilisation = elite bilingualism spreads by politically dominant country, English established as lang of law, admin and technology
3. Nativisation = Inter-ethnic contact increases and a new variety of English develops
4. Edonormative stabilization = after independence and inspiration, new linguistic and local norms are accepted
5. Differentiation = group-specific (ethnic, regional, social) varieties emerge leading to internal diversity
Graddol
current wave of English may lose momentum
McArthur
English is fragmenting into family of languages
Saranceni
- should except we’ve lost control of English and should now view them as Englishes
- we have as much control of English as Italians do of pizza
Jennifer Jenkins
- English should reflect the needs of its users and shouldn’t impose on non-native speakers
Robert Phillipson (1992)
- coined term “linguistic imperialism”
- says the spread of English has served to undermine the rights of other languages
Jean-Paul Nerriere
says English is no longer English, and should be called “globish”
Criticisms of Kachru’s Concentric circles model
- too rigid an approach; doesn’t allow countries to progress between circles
- implies inner circle is more prestigious English
- suggests how people use English depends on their nationality
Howard Giles Accommodation Theory
People accommodate their language to either converge or diverge from others form of language
Convergence:
- adjusting speech to accommodate others: seeking approval
Divergence:
- exaggeration of their own accent to create distance e.g. to establish power
Sharon Goodman Informalisation
- we are living in a time of increased in formalisation
- language forms that were traditionally reserved for close personal relationships are now used in wider social contexts
Sapir-Whorf Theory: Reflectionism and Determinism
Reflectionism
- language is based on the theory that a person’s language reflects their way of thinking
- e.g. someone using derogatory slurs to use language reflecting prejudice
Determinism
- when people are persuaded to not use such terms, but other terms which are seen as more acceptable
- it then can determine a new way of thinking and this forms the basis on which PC is formed
Substratum theory
- focuses on how the influence of different forms of languages that come into contact with English affect how it changes
- popular culture, television and immigration are main influencers
- evident through the language of non-native speakers / regional dialects
- language from a community below the ‘standard form’ come into and is adopted bu the ‘standard’
