theorists

Question 1

Robert Lowth

Answer 1

• grammatical change

- believed language was in state of decay

Question 2

Johnathon Swift

Answer 2

• believed we needed to regulate/standardize English

- concerned by laziness of English

Question 3

Johnson dictionary

Answer 3

• 1755
• one of the first major attempts to fix and stabilise language
• ‘no dictionary of a living tongue can ever be perfect’

Question 4

Webster’s dictionary

Answer 4

• 1832

- wanted to establish model of American English that was equal if not superior to British English

Question 4

Micheal Halliday: Functional Theory

Answer 4

• language changes purposefully to suit users

- there is a logic to language change

Question 5

Charles Hockett Random fluctuation theory

Answer 5

• change is not logical but random
• language changes in response to the ever changing context of language use and its users themselves
• random mistakers lead to language changing

Question 6

David Crystal: Tide Metaphor

Answer 6

• language is never the same and always moving

- language is changing naturally

Question 7

Wave model

Answer 7

• ripples represent change spreading from central point

- as ripples spread they become weaker

Question 8

Atchison’s metaphors: damp spoon syndrome

Answer 8

implies people have become lazy with language

Question 9

Atchison’s metaphors: Crumbling castle view

Answer 9

• language is an ornate building that once had a peak of perfection but is now falling apart

Question 10

Aitchinson’s metaphors: Infectious disease assumption

Answer 10

• people pick up language change to try to fit in

Question 11

Kachru’s concentric Circles Approach

Answer 11

there are three circles of English:

1. the inner circle, UK US: lang norms are developed here
2. the outer circle, India: own variations of English are developing
3. the expanding circle, China, Russia: English used to communicate in business, politics and other practical purposes

Question 12

Schneider’s dynamic model

Answer 12

• how a new variety of English develops:
  1. Foundation = English brought to new territory
  2. Exonormative Stabilisation = elite bilingualism spreads by politically dominant country, English established as lang of law, admin and technology
  3. Nativisation = Inter-ethnic contact increases and a new variety of English develops
  4. Edonormative stabilization = after independence and inspiration, new linguistic and local norms are accepted
  5. Differentiation = group-specific (ethnic, regional, social) varieties emerge leading to internal diversity

Question 13

Graddol

Answer 13

current wave of English may lose momentum

Question 14

McArthur

Answer 14

English is fragmenting into family of languages

Question 15

Saranceni

Answer 15

• should except we’ve lost control of English and should now view them as Englishes
• we have as much control of English as Italians do of pizza

Question 16

Jennifer Jenkins

Answer 16

• English should reflect the needs of its users and shouldn’t impose on non-native speakers

Question 17

Robert Phillipson (1992)

Answer 17

• coined term “linguistic imperialism”

- says the spread of English has served to undermine the rights of other languages

Question 18

Jean-Paul Nerriere

Answer 18

says English is no longer English, and should be called “globish”

Question 19

Criticisms of Kachru’s Concentric circles model

Answer 19

• too rigid an approach; doesn’t allow countries to progress between circles
• implies inner circle is more prestigious English
• suggests how people use English depends on their nationality

Question 20

Howard Giles Accommodation Theory

Answer 20

People accommodate their language to either converge or diverge from others form of language

Convergence:
- adjusting speech to accommodate others: seeking approval

Divergence:
- exaggeration of their own accent to create distance e.g. to establish power

Question 21

Sharon Goodman Informalisation

Answer 21

• we are living in a time of increased in formalisation

- language forms that were traditionally reserved for close personal relationships are now used in wider social contexts

Question 22

Sapir-Whorf Theory: Reflectionism and Determinism

Answer 22

Reflectionism

• language is based on the theory that a person’s language reflects their way of thinking
• e.g. someone using derogatory slurs to use language reflecting prejudice

Determinism

• when people are persuaded to not use such terms, but other terms which are seen as more acceptable
• it then can determine a new way of thinking and this forms the basis on which PC is formed

Question 23

Substratum theory

Answer 23

• focuses on how the influence of different forms of languages that come into contact with English affect how it changes
• popular culture, television and immigration are main influencers
• evident through the language of non-native speakers / regional dialects
• language from a community below the ‘standard form’ come into and is adopted bu the ‘standard’

Question 24

Lingua Franca

Answer 24

• English language is adopted as a. common language between whose native languages are different

Question 25

Aitchison’s four stage model

Answer 25

Potential: reason for a new word to be accepted for use

Implementation: new word/meaning is in use, usually by a small language community

Diffusion: new usage spreads into wider use

Codification: formalised by recording in the dictionary

Question 26

Chen’s S Curve Model

Answer 26

• describes the process of language change
• an individual change will have its origin in a fairly small group of users of the language
• once it catches on, growth is rapid and it will eventually plateau when everyone who is lokely to pick up the change has done so