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Animal Behaviour > Theories/Paradoxes/Rules Etc > Flashcards

Theories/Paradoxes/Rules Etc Flashcards

0
Q

ESS - Evolutionarily Stable Strategy

A

If all the members of the population adopt it, no mutant strategy can do better

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1
Q

Game Theory

A
  • Fitness consequences of a behavioural strategy
  • Costs and benefits of an action depend on other members of the population’s actions
  • Effects so social competition within species & how it shapes the evolution of traits
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2
Q

Hawkes & Doves

A
  • Hawks always fight to kill
  • Doves display never engage
  • Mix of hawks and doves when average payoff for hawk = average payoff of dove
  • ESS established in 2 ways:
    1.) 7/12 hawks in population and 5/12 doves
    2.) Individuals playing hawk 7/12 of the time and acting dove 5/12 of the time.
    Examples in nature - narwhals are hawks, lions are doves
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3
Q

Reciprocity

A
  • Benefit of altruism to recipient is greater than cost to donor
  • Due to time delay, vulnerable to cheating
  • Can be stable evolutionarily
  • Donors must recognise and refuse cheats
  • Sufficient interactions to allow net benefits to all donors
  • Benefit of aid must outweigh cost of donating
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4
Q

Anisogamy & Bateman’s Principle

A

AKA Heterogamy
Sexual reproduction by fusion of dissimilar gametes
(Differ in size, form etc.)
Sperm & Egg
Female eggs - large, nutritious, immobile
Male sperm - small, DNA only, mobile
- Causes eagerness in males and passivity in females

Bateman’s Principle

  1. Sperm outnumber eggs, males compete & success depends on number of mates
  2. Eggs are large, nutritious and more costly than sperm. Females should be choosy and success depends on parental care
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5
Q 
Fisher Process (sexy sons) 
Runaway selection
A
  • Mothers choose mate via arbitrary attractive traits
  • Traits may reduce survival, higher reproductive success
  • Trait & preference linked –> positive feedback
  • Elaborate traits favoured.
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6
Q

The Lek Paradox

A
  • If all females prefer same traits they will become the fixed traits in the population
  • All males becoming identical would decrease value of female choice
  • Genetic diversity is maintained by:
    Deleterious mutations
    Parasite host coevolution
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7
Q

Hamilton’s Rule

A

rbB > rcC. (B is benefit C is cost)
3 nephews survive = 0.25 x 3 = 0.75
1 offspring dies = 0.5 x 1 = 0.5
–> net gain of 0.25 units through Altruism therefore altruistic behaviour spreads

According to Hamilton’s rule, kin selection causes genes to increase in frequency when the genetic relatedness of a recipient multiplied by the benefit to the recipient is greater than the reproductive cost to the actor.

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8
Q

Eusociality

A
  • Ants - worker, soldier, male, queen
  • Cooperative care of young
  • Sterile castes
  • Overlap of generations

Fortress defenders and life defenders

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9
Q

What are Timbergen’s four questions?

A
  1. Development - How does the behaviour develop?
  2. Mechanism - What stimulates the behaviour short term?
  3. Function - What is the behaviour for? How does it promote survival?
  4. Evolution - Where has the behaviour come from?
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10
Q

What happens when there is a failure of mutations to occur?

A

Persistence of non-adaptive traits
E.g. Arctic squirrels react to “snakes” even though they are not usually present anymore (this behaviour remains from their ancestors)

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11
Q

What is pleitropy?

A

Where genes have multiple developmental effects (not usually beneficial)

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12
Q

What is optimality theory?

A

Greatest benefit related to cost

Most likely to see in population

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13
Q

What is convergent evolution?

What is divergent evolution?

A

Convergent evolution:
Distinct ancestry, shared behaviour

Divergent evolution:
Shared ancestry, divergent behaviour

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14
Q

What is a male biased operational sex ratio?

A

Means there are more sexually competing males that are ready to mate than sexually competing females ready to mate

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15
Q

What are the consequences of parental care?

A

Increased offspring survival
Decreased ability to produce more offspring

It is more beneficial to females as they gain less from further copulation

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16
Q

What are secondary sex characteristics?

A 
Enhanced traits involved in mating / sexual selection e.g.
Weaponry 
Body size
Sensory/locomotive apparatus
Dominance hierarchies
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17
Q

Why do males develop friendships with females?

A

They help protect her offspring

She rewards them by mating with them

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18
Q

Direct benefits of female selection

A

Parental care
Food
Territories (quality and size)
Spermatophore (nutritional)

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19
Q

Genetic benefits of polyandry

A

Fertility insurance hypothesis - mating with several males decreases risk that some eggs remain unfertilised

Good genes hypothesis - mate with several males as social partner may have decreased genetic quality compared to others

Genetic compatibility theory - several males, increased sperm variety, good chance sperm will be a good match for eggs

20
Q

Material benefits of polyandry

A

More resource hypothesis - more mates = more resources revived from sexual partners

More care hypothesis - more mates = more caregivers for offspring

Better protection hypothesis - more mates = more time with protesters to stop sexual harassment

Infanticide reduction hypothesis - more mates = more confusion about offspring paternity - less infanticide

21
Q

What is the alternative name for intra-sexual selection?

A

Sperm competition

22
Q

What is the alternative name for inter-sexual selection?

A

Cryptic female choice

23
Q

What does pre-copulatory sexual selection consist of?

A

Male male competition and female choice

24
Q

What does post-copulatory sexual selection consist of?

A

Sperm competition and cryptic female choice

25
Q

What are requirements for sperm competition?

A 
Mating with multiple males
Sperm storage (ejaculates to overlap)
26
Q

Adaptations for avoidance of engagement in sperm competition

A 
Physical barriers of female remating
Chemical barriers of female remating
Mate guarding
Takeover avoidance 
Genetic morphology 
Copulation duration
Testes size
Sperm characteristics
27
Q

Examples of cryptic female choice

A 
Preventing full copulation
Influence sperm transport/storage
Selective sperm use
Selective egg laying 
Differential allocation of eggs
Selective abortion
Mating plug removal
Remating
28
Q

Costs of social living

A

Conspicuous
Increases disease and parasite transmission
Increases food competition
Time and energy expenditure of subordinates increases (dealing with dominant companions)
Males are vulnerable to cuckoldry
Females are vulnerable to egg tossing and reproductive interference

29
Q

Benefits of social living

A

Dilution effect - defence against predators
Others can assist when dealing with pathogens
Subordinates remain safely in group
Males can cuckold others
They can toss/dump eggs and decrease others reproductive success

30
Q

What is mutualism?

A

Shared direct fitness gain (e.g. Lion pride prey capture)
Mutual dependence is necessary to social well being
Symbiosis - beneficial to organisms involved

31
Q

What is obligate altruism?

A

Permanent direct fitness loss (potential for indirect gain)

E.g. Honey bee workers forage for colony

32
Q

What is facultative altruism?

A

Temporary direct fitness loss with potential for indirect gain followed by repro
E.g.florida scrub jay helps nest gaining parental territory

33
Q

What is altruism?

A

Acting to increase another individual’s lifetime number of offspring at cost to ones survival and reproduction

34
Q

What is kin selection?

A

There is no difference between gene copies produced by helping offspring of siblings.
(Increase your own fitness this way)

natural selection in which an apparently disadvantageous characteristic (especially altruistic behaviour) increases in the population due to increased survival of individuals genetically related to those possessing the characteristic.

35
Q

What does inclusive fitness consist of?

A

Direct fitness + Indirect fitness

36
Q

What is haplodiploidy?

A

Sex determination system
Males develop from unfertilised eggs & are haploid
Females develop from fertilised eggs and are diploid

(This determines sex of all members of insect order Hymenoptera - bees, ants, wasps)

37
Q

What do fortress defenders do?

A

E.g. Aphids, termites
Nest and feed inside protected home
Favoured if nest is defendable and can hold many or if finding a new nest is hard

38
Q

What do life defenders do?

A

E.g. Ants, wasps and bees
Forage outside the nest risking predation
Grouping, ensuring loss of dependent brood

39
Q

Differences in parental care between short and long lived birds

A

Short lived birds (N.america)
Spend more time & energy protecting offspring as may be their only chance.
Nest predators - short lived birds stopped feeding to protect offspring

Long lived birds (S.america)
Minimise risk to themselves as they will have future chances to breed
Adult predators - long lived birds stopped feeding to protect themselves

40
Q

What is polygamy?

A

One member/sex mates multiple times (other sex doesn’t)

41
Q

Types of communication and their subtypes

A

Auditory - songs, calls, drumming

Chemical - pheromones, scent, taste

Visual - coloration, ornamentation

Tactile - grooming, nuzzling

42
Q

Selection on signallers

A

Maximise detectability - physical environment and audience
E.g.rufous collared sparrows sing slower trills in forest than grassland

Minimise costs
Energetic costs - displays when competing for food (display depends on level of hunger B>C) Northern fulmar, low cost - wing raising, high cost - ramming from behind
Detection by predators - great tit alarm calls (mobbing call = call to arms! sweet call alerts co specifics but less chance of detection)

43
Q

What is signallers aim?

A

Manipulate receiver behaviour in a way that benefits signaller

44
Q

How do signals maintain honesty?

A

Physical constraints on deceit

Handicap principle

45
Q

How does worker behaviour develop in bees?

A

Different task performance rates peak at different ages.

E.g. Foraging peaks in older bees whereas feeding larvae peaks in young bees.

46
Q

Single gene effects

A

FosB - maternal care in mice
Oxt - social amnesia
Drosophila - sister and rover phenotypes

47
Q

What do homeobox genes do?

A

Control genes in embryogenesis

They are homologous across animals

48
Q

What does chase away selection do?

A

Exploits pre-existing sensory bias

No benefit to female

Animal Behaviour (2 decks)

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