theories of religion Flashcards
Who are the 3 key figures for functionalism in religion?
Durkheim
Malinowski
Parsons
What are Durkheim’s 2 main concepts of religion?
What are the 2 functions of religion according to Durkheim?
The sacred and profane + totemism
Social solidarity + cognitive
What is the difference between sacred and profane?
What does Durkheim argue about this? (2)
Sacred=connected with a God, inspires feelings of awe
Profane=not sacred
Sacred symbols represent great power=society (only society can command such feelings)
Sacred symbols unite believers into a single moral community
What is totemism?
How does this relate to religion?
Relationship between humans and animals/plants/objects (symbols)
These symbols are sacred in religions
How did Durkheim investigate totemism?
What did he find?
Investigated research into the Australian Aboriginal tribe
One of their totems are crocodiles, performing rituals (cutting their skin)
Shared rituals reinforced the groups solidarity (collective consciousness) as it brings them together>community>owe loyalty>shows power of society
*religion also plays a part for individual, not just society, as they’re part of something great>boost morale
According to Durkheim, what do the sacred symbols represent ?
What does this mean?
Society’s collective conscious
=Shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge that make social life possible, without this, society would disintegrate
What does Durkheim argue about the cognitive function of religion?
Give reasoning
In order to think and share thoughts, we need categories e.g. time
Religion is the origin of the categories we need for reasoning e.g. creator bringing the world into being at the beginning of time
One criticism of Durkheim’s functionalist view of religion is that the evidence to totemism is flawed
Explain (4)
-Sociologists argue that there is no clear division between the sacred and profane, and that different clans share the same totems
-Even if Durkheim’s totemism was right, he still hasn’t discovered the nature of all other religions
-His theory may explain social integration within communities, but not the conflicts between them
-Instead, Durkheim’s theory would apply better in small-scale societies with a single religion, less conflict>easier to apply
Postmodernists argue that Durkheim’s views cannot be applied to a contemporary society
Explain
Increasing diversity has fractured the collective conscience
No longer single shared value system for religion to reinforce
What are Malinowski’s 2 main arguments about religion?
Life crises
Controlled and uncontrolled outcomes
What does Malinowski argue about religion and life crises?
Explain 1 example
Religion helps individuals deal with emotional stress from crises e.g. death, marriage, puberty
Death is socially disruptive as it removes an individual from society>tension for those close, may not be able to function adequately
What does Malinowski argue about religion and control?
Explain 1 example
*‘canoe magic argument’
Religion helps society deal with uncontrollable/predictable situations
E.g. fishing in Trobian Islands
In the Inland Lagoon=calm, predictable
Beyond barrier reef=dangers, unpredictable
To deal with unpredictable, islanders engage in religious rituals for favourable outcome
What are Parson’s 3 functions of religion?
Life crises (same as Malinowski)
Legitimates central values
Provides source of meaning
What does Parson argue about religion legitimising central values?
Religion makes societys values sacred
E.g. protestants sacrredislised the American value of individualism
What does Parson argue about religion providing a source of meaning?
Religion answers big questions
E.g. ‘why do good people suffer?’
These questions make life meaningless
But religion gives answers e.g. they suffer but will go to heaven
What does Bellah argue about civil religion?
Explain 1 example
Belief system that doesn’t rely on a God, but still inspires a passionate response
Nationalism e.g. nazism, royal family in the UK
These movements provide a path to a ‘better life’ through obeying moral codes>unites people
One criticism of Durkheim’s view is that the ethonography is produced by someone else
Explain
Malinowski was the one who observed the people of the Trobian Islands
Durkheim is an interpretation of an interpretation
One criticism of Malinowski’s view is that it overemphasises canoe magic
Explain
Ignores rituals and ceramonies
One criticism of civil religion is that it assumes everyone in a society/county is united
Not everyone will agree with nationalist views
One criticism of functionalists in general is that it’s too positive
Explain
Assumes all religions are united and worship collectively, not the case
E.g. in Islam Sunni and Shia muslims share conflict e.g. Syrian civil war
Muslim totem=amulet
What is the difference of how functionalists and Marxists see religion?
Functionalists- unifies society
Marxists- divides society (capitalists and WC)
What does Karl Marx argue about ideology ? (3)
Ideology is a belief system that distorts the WCs perception of reality, to serve the interest of the capitalist class
Religion is used as an ideological weapon to justify the suffering of the poor as something inevitable
This misleads the poor>maintains ‘false class consciousness’, this prevents poor from acting to change their situation
What does Marx argue about alienation?
What does this lead to?
Alienation>religion
Under capitalism workers are alienated as they don’t own what they produce and have no control (alienation)
Religion acts as a ‘social opium’, drug to mask the hardship of alienation and exploitation
How does religion promote poverty?
Religious suffering is ok after a death because you’re promised a place in heaven
Why do Marxists believe religion doesn’t benefit the WC?
Believe God created people in the position that they are, rich or poor
More likely to get into heaven if you have worked hard
Idealogical control
Does religion cause conflict?
Does religion cause social change?
Who is this supported by?
MARXISM
No, as it drugs people to not cause conflict
NO, stops this change by stopping WC fighting the capitalists
Althusser
What does Althusser call relgion?
Idealogical state apparatus (e.g. church) used to legitimise the capitalist class
WC are brainwashed by religion to accept their position in society>false class conciousness
How do functionalists, postmodernists and feminists critise the marxists?
Functionalist- Ignores positive functions of religion e.g. social solidarity
Postmodernists- society has become more secular so all religious meaning has been lost anyway
Feminists- ignores roll of women
What do feminists argue about religion?
Religion is patriarchal- maintains inequality by a men-dominated society
Religion acts as a patriarchal ideology, that legitimises the oppression of women
What does Beauvoir argue about the patriarchy?
Religion is oppressive to women, used by men to control women
Religion compensates women for their 2nd class status, false belief they’ll be rewarded in heaven
Women are told they are equal to men, but are not treated equally
What does Saadawi argue about the patriarchy?
Religion is not oppressive itself, it is the male dominance of religion that’s the problem
This is because of monotheistic (1 god e.g. islam, christianity) religions which are male dominated, scriptures written by men for power
One criticism of the feminists view on religion is that it’s not always patriarchal
Explain
Sociologists argue that religion can be used for when to gain freedom e.g. the hijab
Hijab is a symbol against oppression, liberating, eliminates ‘male gaze’
*RELIGIOUS FORM OF FEMINISM
What 4 evidences are there of patriarchy in religion?
Within religious organisations
Places of worship
Sacred texts
Religious laws and customs
Explain patriarchy within religious organisations
They’re mainly male dominated
E.g. Female Christians cannot become priests
Sociologists argue that the exclusion of women is marginalisation
Explain patriarchy in places of worship
Women’s participation is already restricted
E.g. Islam, women menstruating cannot touch the Qur’an
Sociologists argue that these restrictions devalue women in religion
Explain the patriarchy of sacred texts
Stories often reject anti-female stereotypes
and reinforce perceptions of women’s character
Sacred texts mainly feature the doings of male goods
Explain the patriarchy of religious laws and customs
Women tend to have fewer rights than men
Religion influences cultural norms>unequal treatment e.g. genital mutilation
Many religions maintain the traditional role of a women e.g. Catholic Church bans abortion
RELIGION AND SOCIAL CHANGE
What is a case study example of how religion inspired social protest
Give context
American civil rights
Eventhough slavery was abolished, African Americans were denied legal and political rights in Southern states, which enforced segragation e.g. separate bathrooms
What started the civil rights movement?
Who led the movement?
When Rosa Parks refused to sit at the back of the bus
Dr Martin Luther King, part of the black clergy (Churchmen) -backbone of the movement according to Bruce
What role did the Church play in the civil rights movement?
Was it successful?
Provided a place to pray, sing hymns
Clergy shamed White people into changing the law by appealing to their shared Christian values of equality
Movement was successful as aims were achieved
What is social change?
Changes in human interactions that transform social and cultural institutions
What does Webber argue about social change?
Calvinism (Protestantism) helped bring out social change (capitalism)
‘Spirit of capitalism’=modern capitalism where profit is for its own sake, rather than consumption
What are the 2 key Calvinist beliefs?
What does this lead to?
Predestination- God has already decided which souls would go to heaven or hell (opposite of the catholic ‘waiting room’
Asceticism- Self discipline, refraining from luxury
‘Salvation of panic’- nobody could do anything to earn salvation (=redemption)
How does the Calvinism ethic lead to capitalism?
Refraining from luxury, long working hours, money is invested and not spent>investing, working force, productivity
Businesses prosper>capitalism
One critism of Calvinism is that capitalism hasn’t been developed in every country where there were Calvinists
Explain
Scotland has a large Calvinist population but they were relatively slow in developing capitalism
One critism of Calvinism is that they weren’t the first capitalists because of their beliefs, but that they had been excluded
Explain
Counter
E.g. by law, politics and other professions
They turned to business as one of the few alternatives open to them
Other religious minorities were excluded, but didn’t become successful capitalists
What are the 2 features of Neo-Marxism?
*What is neo-marxism?
Gramisci
Liberation theology
*How class conflict and inequality influence revolutionary change
What is Gramisci interested in?
What is hegemony?
Explain what Gramisci argues about this
How the ruling class maintain their control over society through the use of ideas
Domination of society (by the ruling class, manipulating culture)
Culture institutions e.g. religion is intertwined into peoples perception of the social world
Religious beliefs represent a way of thinking about the social world, that can be exploited by the ruling class
According to Gramisci, how do you break hegemony?
Explain
Intelligentsia (e.g. academics, priests) to lead the WC against the ruling class via revolution
Church could be a vanguard of revolution as priests are intelligent enough to undermine the hegemony of the ruling
What is the liberation theology movement?
What led to this?
1960s Latin America Catholic Church, strong commitment to the poor and opposition to the military dictatorships
Poverty, human rights abuse
What was the aim of liberation theology?
E.g.
How did this change?
To change society
E.g. priests helped the poor establish support groups
1980s Pope dissaproved liberation theology because it resembled Marxism
Marxists believed the poor and oppressed should start a revolution
What are 2 criticisms of liberation theology?
Little evidence that religion has led to social change
Religion itself can be exploiting the poor
