Theories of migration Flashcards
Castles (2010)
The 21st century is regarded as an era of fluidity and openness. BUT, the right to be mobile is more class specific and restrictive than ever. Migration is fundamentally a process based on inequality and discrimination which is tightly controlled and restricted.
The problem is not migration itself- it is the conditions of inequality under which most N-S migrations take place. Development will not reduce migration- it will simply change the conditions under which it takes place.
1) The neo-classical approach has not provided very useful for explaining the actual experiences of migrants- it has very little to do with the reality of migration flows
2) NERM fails to take into account the many non-economic factors that shape migration
3) The political economy approach links the analysis of local-level factors with political, economic and social factors at various other levels (all of which are considered to affect the agency of the migrant). This theory shows how migration is complex.
The author argues that we should focus on developing middle-range theories. Taking social transformation processes as a starting point and mapping the influential factors and connections between them.
Gamlen (2014)
1) Current arguments about the migration-development nexus is neither new nor durable
Against the background of high demand for migrants labour post-war boom and the support for a laissez-faire migration to achieve balanced growth, scholars and policy makers were convinced that migration benefited all those affected by it. BUT, as the crises of the 1970s unfolded, demand for migrant labour subdued and migration and underdevelopment became to be seen as part of a vicious cycle. Yet when economic fortunes revived during the 90s, the virtues of migration-led development were miraculously resurrected. BUT, once again following the credit crunch of the late 2000s, migration has been linked back to pessimistic attitudes.
2) Optimism about the relationship between migration and development has become inflated as a sort of hype
They argue that remittances cannot substitute for development. Brain drain is still a primary concern for many origin countries. The link between migration and development depends fundamentally on geography.
Koser (2007)
The UN defines an international migrant as someone who stays outside their usual country of residence for at least one year. According to this definition, 1 in every 35 people are international migrants.
There are three trends that signify modern mobility:
1) the proportion of women has increased significantly
2) the distinction between countries of origin, transit and destination has become increasingly blurred
3) temporary migration has become prominent
International migration is an important dimension of globalisation- becoming embedded in the changes within global socio-economic structures. One of the most powerful incentives to migrate is to find work. BUT, migrants are often subject to ‘3D jobs’ (dirty, dangerous or difficult) as a result of the segmentation of labour markets.
Remittances is the money that is sent home by migrants. This can be done through central banks, but it is more likely that this is done informally due to the high costs that are often charged (data is therefore unreliable). Remittances now represent the second largest transfer of any legal commodity worldwide (after oil).
In developing countries, remittances are the most important source of external funding (3x the value of donations through development assistance). BUT, the extent to which remittances benefit those outside the immediate family depends largely on how the money is spent.
Example: The Hawilaad system (Somalia)
They collect hard currency from Somali migrants abroad then use the money to purchase commodities that can be sold in Somalia. They return periodically to Somalia, sell their goods, then pay the equivalent in Somali currency to the migrants’ families.
Profit made on the sale of the goods effectively becomes the traders’ commission. This system of transfer is very common among Somali communities across the world.
In the aftermath of 9/11 attempts were made to monitor it or close it down, because of some evidence that funding for the attacks was channelled through Somalia. However, the system has proved hard to formalize, and still appears to be widespread.
William (2009)
International migration plays an important role in the production, reproduction and contestation of uneven urban and regional development in Europe.
It is of concern that neo-classical approaches still influence policy thinking- including the recent UNU-Wider Study of Regional Development which sees migration as one of the solutions to development weaknesses in less developed regions. In this report, migration is seen as one of the solutions to development weaknesses in less developed regions; representing a neglect of externalities, cumulative causation and institutional differentiation.
International migration involves not only the transfer of skills, but also of tacit knowledge and material capital. Rather than seeing some migrants as possessing different and competitive knowledge advantages, human capital theories tend to emphasize their initial lack of nationally specific skills- and the resulting earning function as their wages rise in line with acquiring nationally specific knowledge.
An additional complexity arises from the circularity of much migration- acquiring knowledge that can be commodified after returning to their country of origin. These interwoven flows of capital, skills and knowledge can play a significant role in local and regional economies.
The recent growth of international migration means that it increasingly mediates, as well as shapes forms of governance. Despite the emerging EU level of regulation, the national remains the key site for determining many of the fundamental mobility, residence, employment and welfare right s of migrants.
Migrants and migrant associations now play an active rather than passive role in most regions. This is particularly evident in social integration.
Neo-Classical Economics
Macro level
Under this model, people move from where wages are low to high
Human capital also plays a role (low skilled workers move to areas experiencing labour shortage; high skilled workers move to an area where their skills are in short supply and can earn a higher wage)
According to this theory, any intervening factor (visa fees, transport, relocation), is considered against the wage difference
Micro level
The individual is understood as a rational actor who chooses to migrate
It is easier to understand why an individual chooses to migrate if there is a wage difference; move on expected differences, rather than real differences
The cost of migration can be negative at this level. For example, people moving to a city with ‘character’ even though they may get a lower wage in this city.
New Economics of Labour Migration (NELM)
Migration was thought about at the level of the household.
Migration is ultimately a way of diversifying risk at the household level. Migration expands the opportunities for the household to expand their roles in society. If any sudden changes arise, a diversified household is less likely to be badly affected.
In this understanding, wage differentials are not the main driver of migration. Migration takes the place of other forms of insurance.
This is still framing migration as an economic decision.
Dual Labour Markets
Thinking about migration in the context of the global Marxist economy
In this theory, wages are not only an indication of the supply/demand for labour; they stand for indicators of prestige and status. Higher wages= higher standard. This maintains a class system.
There is a need to attract people for low wages and low status work; migrant labour fits this.
At the lowest level, people are always attempting to move up the social hierarchy. Pressures towards this requires people who do not want to do this.
Migrants are the key to this- they value the higher wage in this country than their own. The status of their job for these people is not a priority.
World Systems Theory
Another Marxist approach to understanding migration. This theory is not implicitly about migration; it is considered as an afterthought.
Under this theory, international migration is inherent to a globalized world economy. Capitalism is a catalyst for migration. This creates an international flow of labour to inverse the flow of goods and capital. Labour flows follow lines of former colonial relations.
Network Effects
Migration is embedded within kinship and social networks. These networks allow the sharing of information and assistance with the moving process. As more people within the social networks move, costs decline and the risk is lowered.
During the recessions of the 80s, migration did not slow down. It was these networks effects that still propelled migration flows. This is above economic explanations.
Therefore, migration is not strongly tied to wages or employment. Instead, social and structural factors play a greater role.
Institutional Factors
Migration must be understood in context and in relation to state policy. The more limits that are set up against migration, the more institutions emerge to respond to this.
As states attempt to control migration, grey/black market brokers and smugglers attempt to organize migration for considerable profit. These traffickers need a demand. For example, information can be delivered to potential migrants to encourage them to do so. This was done across the US-Mexico Border.
Humanitarian and human rights organizations organize to fight this exploitation and support the rights of migrants.
Cumulative Causation
This suggests that the perpetuation of migration is tied to feedback mechanisms outside the control of the state or market. In this theory, migration is focused on social (rather than economic) factors
As migration increases, there are shifts in the ideas of relative inequality and deprivation. Migrants are able to send remittances back home- this improves the quality of life back home. This causes people to see the benefits of having a migrant in their family and the material gains they can benefit from. Results in more migration.
This ends up becoming a cultural dynamic of societies. Migration is almost expected in certain cultures: seen as a rite of passage.
This can result in a ‘brain drain’- reinforces uneven economic dynamism.The original place is left with fewer high skilled people to improve prospects
This theory also considers the social labelling of labour. Often results in stigmatized ‘immigrant jobs’.
