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Psychology across the lifespan > Theories of Human Development > Flashcards

Theories of Human Development Flashcards

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1
Q

Nature:

A

Influences of heredity, emphasis on the process of maturation and biological development

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2
Q

Nurture:

A

Influences of the environment, emphasis on learning and experience causes change

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3
Q

Microsystem:

A

The immediate settings in which the person functions

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4
Q

Chronosystem:

A

Patterning of events over time in the microsystem. Also, the system that captures the way changes in environmental systems, such as social trends and life events, are patterned over a person’s lifetime.

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5
Q

Mesosystem:

A

he interrelationships between microsystems or immediate environments

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6
Q

Exosystem:

A

Settings not experienced directly by an individual but which still influence their development

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7
Q

Macrosystem:

A

The larger cultural or subcultural context of development

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8
Q

Gerontology:

A

The study of the social, psychological, mental and biological aspects of aging and old age

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9
Q

Life span perspective:

A

the view of development as a lifelong, multidirectional process that involves gain and loss, is characterised by considerable plasticity, is shaped by its historical cultural context, has many causes and is best viewed from a multidisciplinary perspective.

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10
Q

Plasticity:

A

The capacity of an organism to change in response to both positive and negative environments and experiences across the lifespan.

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11
Q

Neuroplasticity:

A

The ability for brain cells and brain structures to change in response to experience.

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12
Q

Nature and Nurture:

A

To what extent is development primarily the product of genes, biology and maturation – or of experience, learning and social influence.

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13
Q

Activity and passivity:

A

How much do humans actively shape their own environment and contribute to their own development- or are they more passive and shaped by forces beyond their control.

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14
Q

Universality and context specificity:

A

In what ways is development similar from person to person and from culture to culture, and in what ways do pathways of development vary considerably depending on the social context.

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15
Q

Unconscious motivation:

A

The power of instincts and other inner forces, such as feelings and conflicts, which influence thinking and behaviour without awareness.

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16
Q

Id:

A

The inborn component of the personality that is driven by impulsive, irrational and selfish urges.

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17
Q

Ego:

A

The rational component of the personality that seeks to satisfy urges in a realistic manner.

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18
Q

Super Ego:

A

The component of the personality that consists of the individuals internalised moral standards.

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19
Q

Oral stage (Birth to 1 year):

A

Libido is focused on the mouth as source of pleasure. Seeks to obtain oral gratification from mother figure which is critical to later development.

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20
Q

Anal stage: (1 to 3 years):

A

Libido is focused on the anus, and toilet training creates conflicts between the child’s biological desires and society’s demands.

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21
Q

Phallic Stages (3 to 6 years):

A

Libido centers on the genitals with the focus on the resolution of the Oedipus Complex (love for mother – rivalry with father) and Electra Complex (love for father – rivalry with mother) and development of the superego.

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22
Q

Latent Period (6 to 12 years):

A

Libido is quiet, psychic energy is invested in schoolwork and play with same–sex friends.

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23
Q

Genital Stage (12 and beyond):

A

Puberty reawakes the sexual instincts as youths seek to establish mature sexual relationships and pursue the biological goals of reproduction.

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24
Q

Erikson: Psychosocial Theory:

A

Placed less emphasis on sexual urges as the drivers of development and more emphasis on social influences such as peers, teachers, schools and the broader culture, claiming that nature and nurture are equally important.

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25
Q

Eight stages of psychosocial development:

A
  1. Trust vs mistrust: Infants must learnt to trust their parents/caregivers to meet their needs
  2. Autonomy vs shame and doubt: Children must learn to be autonomous and exert their will and do things for themself - or they will doubt their abilities.
  3. Initiative vs guilt: Preschoolers develop initiative by devising bold and carrying out bold plans, but they must learn not to impinge on the rights of others.
  4. Industry vs inferiority: Children must master important social and academic skills and keep up with their peers, otherwise they will feel inferior.
  5. Identity vs role confusion: Adolescents ask who they are and must establish social and vocational identities; otherwise they will remain confused about the roles they should play as adults.
  6. Intimacy vs isolation: Young adults seek to form a shared identity with another person, but may fear intimacy and experience loneliness and isolation.
  7. Generativity vs stagnation: Middle-aged adults must feel that they are producing something that will outlive them, either as a parent or as a worker; otherwise they will become stagnant and self-centered.
  8. Integrity vs despair: Older adults must come to view their lives as meaningful to face death with worries and regrets.
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26
Q

Trust vs mistrust:

A

Infants must learnt to trust their parents/caregivers to meet their needs

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27
Q

Autonomy vs shame and doubt:

A

Children must learn to be autonomous and exert their will and do things for themself - or they will doubt their abilities.

28
Q

Initiative vs guilt:

A

Preschoolers develop initiative by devising bold and carrying out bold plans, but they must learn not to impinge on the rights of others.

29
Q

Industry vs inferiority:

A

Children must master important social and academic skills and keep up with their peers, otherwise they will feel inferior.

30
Q

Identity vs role confusion:

A

Adolescents ask who they are and must establish social and vocational identities; otherwise they will remain confused about the roles they should play as adults.

31
Q

Intimacy vs isolation:

A

Young adults seek to form a shared identity with another person, but may fear intimacy and experience loneliness and isolation.

32
Q

Generativity vs stagnation:

A

Middle-aged adults must feel that they are producing something that will outlive them, either as a parent or as a worker; otherwise they will become stagnant and self-centered.

33
Q

Integrity vs despair:

A

Older adults must come to view their lives as meaningful to face death with worries and regrets.

34
Q

Reinforcement

There are two types:

A
  1. Positive reinforcement: Strengthening behaviour by presenting a desired stimulus after the behaviour.
  2. Negative reinforcement: Strengthening behaviour by removing an aversive stimulus.
35
Q

Negative Reinforcement Key Idea

A

The ‘negative’ in negative reinforcement does not imply that the behaviour being reinforced is necessarily negative. The meaning is closer to that of negative numbers - something is subtracted. Associate positive and negative reinforcement with adding and subtracting something following a behaviour. BUT in both cases, the outcome is to increase the likelihood of the behaviour occurring.

36
Q

Punishment

A

Punishment-involves decreasing or suppressing behaviour. A behaviour followed by a “punisher” is less likely to be repeated in similar situations in the future.

37
Q

presentation punishment/Positive (Type I):

A

Decreasing the chances that a behaviour will occur again by presenting an aversive stimulus following the behaviour.

38
Q

Removal punishment/Negative (Type II):

A

Decreasing the chances that a behaviour will occur again by removing a pleasant stimulus following the behaviour.

39
Q

Observational Learning

A

(Bandura)

40
Q

Social cognitive theory:

A

Bandura’s social learning theory which emphasises the role of cognitive processing of social experiences for motivating and self-regulating human behaviour.

41
Q

Observational Learning:

A

Learning that results from observing the bahaviour of other people.

42
Q

Latent Learning:

A

Learning that occurs from observation but is not evident in behaviour.

43
Q

Vicarious Reinforcement:

A

A process in obersavtional learning in which learners become more or less likely to perform a behaviour based on whether consequences experienced by the model they observe are reinforcing and punishing.

44
Q

Self-efficacy:

A

The belief that one can effectively produce desired outcomes in a particular area in life.

45
Q

Reciprocal Determinism:

A

The notion in social cognitive theory that human development is shaped by the continuous interaction between the person, the person’s behaviour and their environment.

46
Q

Hierarchy of Needs

A

(Maslow)

47
Q

Humanistic Psychology:

A

A theoretical perspective that emphasises the innate goodness of people and a tendency towards growth and self-determination as motivating forces for cognition and behaviour.

48
Q

Self-actualisation:

A

An innate human need for reaching one’s full potential.

49
Q

Hierarchy of Needs:

A

Five ascending levels of human needs that motivate thought and behaviour.

50
Q

Hierarchy of Needs;

A
  1. Psychological needs: The fundamental biological needs required for survival, including food, drink, oxygen, sleep, shelter and sex.
  2. Safety need: The need for a stable and secure environment.
  3. Belonging and love needs: The need for close relationships and being a part of groups such as community, family and peers.
  4. Esteem needs: The need for self-respect through a sense of competence and individual achievement, and the need for respect from others via appreciation, status or fame.
  5. Self-actualisation needs: The need to fully achieve one’s talents, capabilities and potential.
51
Q

Cognitive theory development Who?

A

(Piaget’s)

52
Q

Cognitive developmental theory: What?

A

Piaget’s theory of development which emphasises the role of experience and active exploration interacting with biological maturation as the drivers for cognitive development.

53
Q

Constructivism:

A

The position that humans actively create their own understandings of the world from their experience, as opposed to being born with innate ideas or being programmed by the environment.

54
Q

Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development;

A
  1. Birth to 2 years: sensorimotor

Infants use their senses and motor actions to explore and understand the world. At the start they have only innate reflexes, but they develop increasingly “intelligent” actions. By the end, they are capable of symbolic thought using images or words and can therefore mentally plan solutions to problems.

  1. 2 to 7 years: preoperational

Preschoolers use their capacity for symbolic thought to develop language, engage in pretend play and solve problems. Their thinking is not yet logical however; they are egocentric (unable to take others’ perspectives) and are easily fooled by perceptions, failing “conservation” problems because they cannot rely on logical operations.

  1. 7 to 11 years: concrete operations

School-age children acquire concrete logical operations that allow them to mentally classify, add and otherwise act on concrete objects in their heads. They can solve practical, real-world problems through trial and error approach but have difficulty with hypothetical and abstract problems.

  1. 11 to 12 years and beyond: formal operations

Adolescents can think about abstract concepts and purely hypothetical possibilities and can trace the long-range consequences of possible actions. With age and experience, they can form hypotheses and systematically test them using scientific method.

55
Q

Sociocultural Theory: Who?

A

(Vygotsky)

56
Q

Sociocultural Theory: What?

A

Sociocultural Theory: Emphasises the role of social and cultural context for cognitive development.

Social constructivism: The position that humans actively create their own understandings of the world from their social interactions and exposure to cultural tools such as langauge.

Information-processing approach: An approach to cognition that empahsises the fundamental mental processes involved in attention, perception, memory and decision making.

57
Q

Sociocultural Theory: Definition

A

Emphasises the role of social and cultural context for cognitive development.

58
Q

Social constructivism:

A

The position that humans actively create their own understandings of the world from their social interactions and exposure to cultural tools such as langauge.

59
Q

Information-processing approach:

A

An approach to cognition that empahsises the fundamental mental processes involved in attention, perception, memory and decision making.

60
Q

The Schaire-Willis Seven-stage model

A

Acquisitive – achieving – responsible – executive – reorganisational – reintegrative – legacy creating

61
Q

Systems Theories: Who?

A

Gottlieb: Epigenesis

62
Q

Systems Theories: Gottlieb - Epigenesis

A

Systems theories: Theoretical perspectives based on the concept that developmental changes over the life-span arise from ongoing interrelationships between a changing organism and a changing environment, both of which are part of a larger, dynamic system.

Ethology: A theoretical perspective that focuses on the evolved behavior of different species in their natural Environments.

Epigenetic psychobiological systems perspective: Gottlieb’s view that development is the product of interacting biological and environmental forces that form a larger, dynamic system, both over the course of the evolution and during the individuals’ life.

Epigenesis: The process which nature and nurture, genes and environment, jointly bring forth development in ways that are difficult to predict at the outset.

63
Q

Systems theories: Definition

A

Theoretical perspectives based on the concept that developmental changes over the life-span arise from ongoing interrelationships between a changing organism and a changing environment, both of which are part of a larger, dynamic system.

64
Q

Ethology:

A

A theoretical perspective that focuses on the evolved behavior of different species in their natural Environments.

65
Q

Epigenetic psychobiological systems perspective:

A

ottlieb’s view that development is the product of interacting biological and environmental forces that form a larger, dynamic system, both over the course of the evolution and during the individuals’ life.

66
Q

Epigenesis:

A

The process which nature and nurture, genes and environment, jointly bring forth development in ways that are difficult to predict at the outset.

Psychology across the lifespan (1 decks)

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