Theories Of GP

Question 1

Key term: Realism

Answer 1

States are the most important and authoritative actors in GP and their primary goal is to protect their own national interests

Question 2

Key term: Liberalism

Answer 2

States interests in GP add linked and interdependent, and best advanced through states working closely with each other and with non-state actors in order to achieve common political objectives

Question 3

Key term: Security dilemma

Answer 3

The idea that as one state builders up its defence, others will respond by building up theirs, thereby increasing tensions between the two states or even provoking conflict.

Question 4

Realist thinker: Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics (1979)

Answer 4

Waltz is a defensive realist. Bipolar it’s where two major powers are competing for power, is more stable than multipolarity, where many rival powers are competing with each other. Two major powers can negotiate their way to stability note easily than many powers. The international system is in a state on anarchy, with no central authority above nation-state level

Question 5

Realist thinker: Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society (1977)

Answer 5

Bull identified the idea of an anarchical society within which a society of states operates in spite of its anarchy. A society of states is formed when states realise that they have common interests and values and will benefit from working together. When this happens, states begin to interact and impact on each others’ decisions, so ‘they behave - at least in some measure - as part of a whole’.

Question 6

Key term: Anarchical Society

Answer 6

The term used by Hedley Bull in his 1977 book of the same name. It is the idea that GP is in a state of disorder because there is no higher authority than nation-states with the power to control GP.

Question 7

Key term: Society of States

Answer 7

GP politics is a system in which states attempt to establish order by forming alliances, creating international institutions and laws.

Question 8

Realist thinker: Hans Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations (1948)

Answer 8

Morgenthau is a classical realist. Political man is a naturally selfish creature and will always try to dominate and have power over others. Moral considerations in GP are less important than the national interest.

Question 9

Realist thinker: John Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (2001)

Answer 9

Mearsheimer is an offensive realist. He explained that conflict and competition for power between the great world powers will continue. States are trying to secure hegemony, meaning they want to dominate all other states within a region.

Question 10

Anarchical world order In action: Iraq War 2003

Answer 10

Iraq was prepared to use WMD, the USA, UK and other allies invaded in March 2003. - the objective was to disarm Iraq and its leader Saddam Hussein of these weapons.

The USA launched military action without a clear UNSC resolution. - Russia and France did not support the US Ivan soon plans and urged UN weapons inspectors to be given more time for assessment.

Ground assault and air strikes brought Saddam Hussein’s regime to an end (executed Sept 2006) - after it was confirmed there were no WMD in Iraq.

*Realist thinker Mearsheimer opposed there war and believed that it was not in the USAs national interest to invade

Question 11

How is the Iraq war an example of Realism in US and UK foreign policy?

Answer 11

The USA was prepared to ‘go it alone’, without international support (no UNSC approval process wider international agreement and support)

The war’s legality was highly questionable (the case for war was concluded in 2016 to be unjust and Saddam Hussein’s regime posed ‘no imminent threat’ according to UKs Chilcot Inquiry)

The USA and it’s allies were acting in what they perceived and argued was their national interests (USA saw complying with international laws as an obstacle - carrying out action was in the national interest)

Question 12

Anarchical world order in action: Chinese activity in the South China Sea

Answer 12

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Question 13

Anarchical world order In action: the Russian annexation of Crimea, 2004

Answer 13

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Question 14

Explain the Realist view on Human nature:

Answer 14

Human nature is naturally selfish and ego sit and therefore states are interested in their own national interests. Human nature is fixed and driven, and cannot be changed, so states too are motivated by a desire to dominate and have power over others.

States are also motivated by a need to survive, especially in a global ‘self-help’ system where there is no guarantee that any other state or actor in GP will help them

Question 15

Explain the Liberal view on human nature:

Answer 15

Believe in a more optimistic vision of human nature than realists. Human nature is not fixed and states can therefore improve and develop.

Humans, and states are committed to individual liberty and freedom (HR).

Humans, and Tatar’s prefer to work in partnership with others and look for opportunities to do so. International cooperation, through IGOs is therefore possible and desirable.

It is possible to impose order on humans and states from above, for example through a rules-based system of international law.

Conflict is a feature of GP but must always be avoided and exists only as a last resort.

Question 16

Case study: Realist language in the ‘Leave’ campaign (2016)

Answer 16

Referendum on the UKs continued membership of the EU.

Morning of the 26th June it was announced that 51.89% of the UK voters had voted to leave and 48.11% voted to remain. David Cameron the Prime Minister at the time campaigned to leave and resigned and stated that the ‘British people have voted to leave the European Union and their will must be respected’.

The leave campaign involved prominent conservative, Labour and UKIP figure heads including Boris Johnson, Micheal Gove and Nigel Farage. The language, slogans and key messages if the leave campaign can all be analysed for realist themes. This is an example of theory being used for explanatory purposes - in other words, attempting to explain why something happened in the way that it did.

Question 17

Case study: realist language in the leave campaign (2016)

Realist language in the leave campaign slogans

Answer 17

“Vote leave, take back control”
The central slogan of the ‘leave’ campaign emphasised the view that leavening the EU would free the UK from being forced to comply with EU laws.

“While we’re in the EU, we can’t make trade deals on our own”
The ‘leave’ campaign argued that EU membership prevented the UK from negotiating its own trade deals with other key allies such as the USA.

“EU law overrides UK law”
The ‘leave’ campaign argued that the EU has the power to make its own laws and force the Uk to adopt these laws (and so bypass sovereignty).

Question 18

Key term: international anarchy

Answer 18

The notion that states are self-contained units that frequently clash with each other, in a world system where there is no authority that is as legitimate, powerful or authoritative as nation states.

Question 19

What is the Billiard Ball Model?

Answer 19

An analogy frequently used to explain realism and the idea of international anarchy is John Daltons Billiard Ball Model. The billiard balls in the game represent nation states. The billiard balls hard shells represent national sovereignty of individual states. If one billiard ball hits the other they will spread out across the table. The billiard balls will remain separate entities and will not merge together.

The billiard ball model is a way of explaining realism and is not a theory in its own right. Therefore, it is better to refer to the theory as ‘realism’, rather than the Billiard Ball Model, in an exam situation.

Question 20

State consequences of international anarchy.

Answer 20

In the eyes of realist, international anarchy leads to the following:
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Question 21

Distinguish between an anarchical society and a society of states.

Answer 21

Anarchical society:

• an anarchical society is a state of GPs without an ordering authority above nation- state level
• the most powerful actors are states. No other actor can compel states to do anything against their will. In this sense, the world is anarchical.

A society of states:

• GPs lacks any central authority. States are, therefore the most authoritative bodies.
• states use their authority to negotiate the best possible global society and world order that they can. These attempts have their successes and failures, but they are the only mean of avoiding chaotic and disorderly GP

Question 22

Explain the five key elements of realism and the superiority of states. Why do realist believe that states are the most important actors in GP (more important and significant than others such as IGOs, NGOs and MNCs)?

Answer 22

• IGOs only exits because states created them: states have the ultimate power to join or leave IGOs. (UK deciding to trigger article 50 of the treaty of Lisbon, enabling it to legs ethe EU) other examples in the book states are therefore fundamental building blocks of IGOs
• IGOs sucked or fail based on member-state actions: success and failure is down to the decisions and agreement of their member states on matters small and large. Most IGOs are intergovernmental forums in which state governments conduct and negotiate business.
• states often act outside IGOs: states often make agreements outside of IGOs by negotiating treaties with each other. States have freedom to agree or to opt out of these treaties.
• free trade only exists because states have agreed to it: free trade could not exist without states consent. States are building blocks of the global system of international trade. States have the power to make protectionist laws that could make trade more difficult for example raising national taxes on forge in imported goods.
• states still have the power to act unilaterally, regardless of IGOe or treaties: for example Russian action in the Crimea and UK and US action in Iraq went ahead without clear UNSC mandates.

Question 23

Realists believe that conflict is inevitable and is the most natural, or usual, state of affairs in GP. Why is this?

Answer 23

• states are likely to try to Maxine a their power and influence, resorting to, or provoking, conflict of necessary.
• states are inherently selfish and likely to promote their own national interests even if that means resorting to conflict.
• the world system is anarchical, so there is no authority capable of preventing conflict unless states judge that conflict is not in their interest. For example, international efforts through the UN and Geneva peace talks failed to restrain the various actors from pursuing their perceived interests during the Syrian conflict.
• states put their own security at risk and make conflict more likely when they build up their own military DeGeneres to counter a perceived threat. This in turn encourages the opposing Tate to increase its own security or military infrastructure. This is known as the security dilemma.

Question 24

Outline the Realist view on order, security and the likelihood of conflict.

Answer 24

Conflict is an unavoidable feature of GP

Conflict is sometimes necessary, both to defend vital national interest and to increase a states power and influence

Defending internal security and stability is crucial. This is best done through well-defended borders, and clear and enforced laws

Ever state is potentially a threat to other states

Question 25

Outline the Liberal view on order, security and the likelihood of conflict.

Answer 25

Conflict is avoidable and efforts should be made to prevent and reduce conflict

IGOs such as the Un offer a forum for conflict resolution

States being bound together in deep economic cooperation reduces the likelihood of them fighting each other. The EU us a good example of economic cooperation leading to limited conflict (for this it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2012)

Question 26

Explain the security dilemma in detail: include (according to realists) how states protect themselves from other states and increasingly non-state actors.

Answer 26

States may:

• decide to invest their military power by invariant the number of troops warships or aircraft that they are able to deploy.
• keep or acquire nuclear weapons (Iran/North Korea). Others may want to acquire new technology to gain a strategic advantage, such as missile-firing drones

Other states may see this military build up as a threat and respond by bulking up their own military resources. What was intended as a defence strategy may even provoke other states to respond with aggression. It will be difficult for other statues to trust the intentions of states in building up their military resources.

Question 27

Security Dilemma example - Russia and those former Soviet states that have now joined NATO.

Refer to a recent example of a security dilemma

Answer 27

The states have calculated that their security interest are best served by joining a US-backed collective security alliance. NATO has required these states such as Estonia and Latvia to increase their military spending because it is fairer if all NATO members make an equal contribution to the collective military alliance rather than states simply benefiting from the military strength and resources of the richest and most powerful NATO member states.

The Middle East. Saudi Arabia and Iran are the regions major power, and each represents key sects within the region of Islam. Both compete for power in the region and continue to challenge each other.

Question 28

Case study: NATO and a Russia tensions

Answer 28

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Question 29

Explain what is meant by ‘balance of power’ - realist idea.

Answer 29

The best guarantee for some realists is the first of these scenarios - to dominate all potential rivals in a unipolar system. USA experienced this to a degree in the immediate aftermath of the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. Other realists believe that a balance of power in. Bipolar system is better for security

If a unipolar system is not possible, because mother state is also powerful, then realists believe that the most stable outcome is for the powerful states to roughly match each other’s power. (States balance each other out):

• states will try to match military and economic resources of their rival (can lead to an arms race)
• smaller states may try to join alliances with more powerful states or other smaller states

Can contrast this with the security dilemma, where some liberals believe that when states try to match each other in terms of their military power, they can actually risk provoking the other state by appearing as a threat.

Question 30

A recent example of a balance of power.

Answer 30

Between the USA(including NATO allies) and the Soviet Union during the Cold War.

With the knowledge that both were equally matched and that a nuclear weapons attack would only result in deadly retaliation, the two states engaged in a nuclear arms race.

The concept of MAD successfully ensured that there was no nuclear confrontation between the USA and Soviet Union during this period. Neither did the two rivals fight on a battlefield - both instead engaged in proxy wars using other actors to fight each other (eg, USA arming the Mujihadeen in Afghanistan to fight the Soviet Union, without actually deploying troops of its own)

Since the 9/11 attacks in the USA a multipolar global order has emerged with many states and non state actors such as al-Qaeda, challenging for each other

GP IS THEREFORE CURRENTLY IMBALANCED.

Question 31

Realist view on ‘power’

Answer 31

Powerful states will always be able to overcome weaker states

Threats and the sue of force are particularly important types of hard power to possess and maximise, especially in a self-help system where no other actor can be guaranteed to protect a states security

The primary goal and motivation of states is to increase their power

When power is shared equally between states it can create stability

States are aware of the limits of soft power, though they may use smart power, by combing hard and soft power to achieve intended outcomes

Question 32

Liberal view on ‘power’

Answer 32

The use of power, particularly military, can often be counterproductive (security dilemma)

Military power is not the only form of significant power. Economic power and free-trade links can enable states to become richer, and also more stable and secure. As states become more economically interdependent, the risk of conflict decreases. In this way, economic interdependence makes the entire global system more stable and peaceful

Soft power and smart power are important means by which states can achieve their intended outcomes. They should be the first option, with hard used only as a last resort.

Question 33

“What evidence is there of a balance of power between Russia and the USA”?

Answer 33

There is evidence to suggest that there is a balance of power between Russia and the US through the organisation of NATO. Both nations have both got the largest militaries in the world, but are not really ready to use them.

The USA has technologically more advanced than Russia

Russia rebuilt after its defeat in the Cold War, and attempted to regain its power and influence in global politics, so it has increased its military power and influence in its immediate neighborhood.

Russia has shown that they can exercise their military power and influence effectively through the annexation of Crimea from Ukraine, and their intervention in the Syrian conflict, where the US and its allies were unwilling to commit.

Question 34

To what extent was George Bush a realist president?

Answer 34

There are actions that he has done that suggest that he was a realist president. The most significant event of his time in office would be a declaration of war in Iraq (2003), where it could be suggested that he used military intervention and geostrategic plans to try and maximise the US’ influence overseas.

Some would argue that he wasn’t a pure realist as it is claimed that he was hoping to introduce democracy in Iraq BUT this could be seen as him building America’s empire

Question 35

Summarize the key elements of liberal GP theory

Answer 35

A wider range of non state actors has a positive role to play, including IGOs and NGOs.

International law is possible & desirable - GP and world order should be based on clearly agreed international rules.

power is not a zero sum calculation - especially not at the expense of other states

there is mutual benefit in states cooperating and working together on matters such as security, trade and development. IGOs, such as the EU and the UN, offer clear rules and forums for achieving this.

Democratic peace thesis - Democratic states are less likely to enter into conflict

Commercial peace thesis

Question 36

Liberal thinker: Robert Keohane, After Hegemony (2005)

Answer 36

Keohane was one of the proponents of the idea of complex interdependence, which argues that states and their individual fortunes are inextricably linked. He challenges the idea that realists will always reject international cooperation because of their preference for protecting their national interest, arguing that it is more rational and indeed increasingly in states’ national interest to find more ways of cooperating with each other.

RK agrees that states are inherently egoistical. But international law and institutions that try to persuade and enable states to reach shared solutions, rather than enforce decisions on states, can still be successful.

Question 37

Liberal thinker: Francis Fukuyama, The end of history and the last man (1992)

Answer 37

FF argues that, with the end of the Cold War and the defeat of the Soviet Union, liberal democracy would become the undisputed form of human government, which he calls the endpoint of mankind’s ideological development.

Question 38

Liberal thinker: Kenichi Ohmae, The end of the Nation State (1995)

Answer 38

Globalisation has brought about a deep and revolutionary set of economic, cultural and technological and political shifts that have dramatic implications for state sovereignty. Ohmae argues that states are losing their economic power and are no longer the main participants in the global economy.

Question 39

Outline four pieces of evidence to suggest Clinton fits the liberal paradigm. (2016 election speeches)

Answer 39

Nation states working together to protect each other’s national security through a collective military alliance such as NATO was in the US national interest
NATO is one of the best investments America has ever made.
NATO allies have fought alongside the US, sharing the burdens and the sacrifices
Diplomacy is often the only way to avoid a conflict that could end up exacting a much greater cost.

Question 40

What is economic globalisation?

Answer 40

Much improved communication and transportation have increased trade between states. There is greater economic interconnectedness because more states are trading with each other as it becomes easier to do so. International economic organisations, such as the WTO, have played their part in this expansion of new trade agreements. Developed economies have invested heavily in many developing economies.

Speculative capitalism (trade capitalism) - casino capitalism, speculating a stock market

Question 41

What is political globalisation?

Answer 41

Political decision making has become increasingly globalised, through the increase in international and regional governmental organisation. The increasing number of political challenges that require a collective response has also increased, including climate change, organised crime, health pandemics and global terrorism. The number of international and regional political institutions managing shared interests has increased, as has their membership.

Question 42

What is social/cultural globalisation?

Answer 42

Communities that were previously relatively self-contained have become increasingly connected in terms of shared media and culture. Increased global immigration has created much more diverse societies, although some argue that this has led to an erosion of national culture. It has also enabled ideas to travel quickly across borders. For example, the speed with which the Arab Uprisings spread from Tunisia to Egypt and other middle eastern and north African states has been attributed to the power of social media (e.g. Facebook and Twitter) and satellite news channels (e.g. Al Jazeera)

Question 43

Why does the cobweb model arise from liberal IR theory?

Answer 43

The Cobweb Model represents the links between states. If one strand breaks, the cobweb may begin to disintegrate. This demonstrates the extent to which states are dependent and rely on each other.

Note that the Cobweb Model is a way of explaining liberalism and complex interdependence rather than being a theory in its own right. Thus, it is better to refer to the theory as “liberalism”, rather than the Cobweb Model in an exam situation.

Not only about states but also about non state actors

Question 44

What does complex interdependence mean?

Answer 44

the idea that states and their fortunes are inextricably linked

Question 45

Summarize the realist view on sovereignty

Answer 45

States remain primary and most powerful actors in GP

Sovereignty is an absolute concept - it should not be violated, limited or given except… (below)

Another state’s sov may be infringed upon if one’s own national interest requires it.
E.g. if the USA’s authorised 2011 operation to assassinate Osama bin Laden was argued as a justifiable incursion into Pakistan’s sovereign territory

States should be wary of giving up too much sovereignty to IGOs. Powers of veto are a useful means of protecting one’s national interests while retaining one’s ability to use the IGO as a forum for influencing other states towards one’s own desired outcomes.

Question 46

Summarize the liberal view on sovereignty

Answer 46

States are important actors but they work within a complex web of interdependence and with other non-state actors, e.g. IGOs and NGOs

Sovereignty exists to be used to states’ advantage, e.g pooling sovereignty with other states in an IGO such as the EU

Another state’s sov may be infringed if it is necessary to uphold the values and interests of the international community,
e.g. under the doctrine of the UN Responsibility to Protect if human rights abuses are taking place.
Sovereignty can pool together

Question 47

What are the three core liberal strands or “elements” seem to constrain conflicts between states

Answer 47

Democracy - meaning accountability to citizens (democratic states often must seek permission from their national legislature to engage in military action) - military action may be unpopular and could possibly loose an election.

IGOs - do not have full authority over nation states, liberals believe they are the closest possible challenge to the dangerous notion of an anarchic system of GP. offer a forum to defuse some disputes altogether, reduce tensions in some and keep open the possibility of dialogue in others

Economiic interdepenece and trade - trade means that states are dependent on each other (conflict is mutually harmful). Widespread global free trade has offered a peaceful means for states to gain from each other’s resources

Question 48

What is the overall idea behind the kantian triangle?

Answer 48

Republican constitutions (democratic states), commercial change (economic interdependence) and a system of international law would help foster peaceful relations between states

• Democratic states offer a more stable base with which other states can trade
• Many IGOs have been founded to make economic interdependence easier

Question 49

Explain the reasons for democracy contributing to peace.

Answer 49

Wars must be seen as legitimate and gov’ts that initiate conflict are held accountable for the legitimacy, success and failure of military conflicts they initiate

Democratic gov’ts need to win elections and are unlikely to enter into conflict if the conflict does not have domestic support

Intra-state conflict or a civil war is less common in states that are internally democratic. The rise in the number of democratic states has been accompanied by a fall in global conflict (both civil wars and inter-state conflicts)

Question 50

Explain reasons against the view that democracy contributes to peace

Answer 50

2003 Iraq War - two of the most respected democratic states initiated wars that were later declared to have been illegal

Elections won by Bush and Blair despite signs of early difficulty in the Afghanistan and Iraq wars, though both conflicts became significantly more difficult and unpopular after these elections

Failure to intervene has consequences
E.g. Many suggest that the UK and USA should have intervened with military action against President Assad but the failure of the USA to take military action against Assad’s use of chemical weapons, something that Obama called a “red line”

Insufficient safeguards against conflict or poor decision-making
E.g. The UK Parliament voted to invade Iraq in 2003 because the government and the opposition agreed on the need for conflict

Question 51

What, for liberals, is an “international community”? How & why has this term been criticized?

Answer 51

International community - Community of organisations who work together towards goals internationally
- They believe states share interests, values and attitudes. E.g. human rights apply to all human beings regardless of where they live in the world.#

Realists disagree that there are shared global attitudes and values. They believe that attitudes, interests and values come primarily from states themselves and are not always aligned.

Question 52

What is the Rohingya refugee crisis?

Answer 52

Since August 2017, an estimated 745,000 people have crossed the border from Myanmar into Bangladesh after violence erupted in Rakhine State.

The rapid movement and huge influx of people across the border put massive strain on existing refugee camps and settlements, and on the host communities who are supporting the new arrivals.

New spontaneous settlements formed and expanded rapidly. The Bangladesh Government is providing humanitarian support to the Rohingya refugees and ActionAid has been on the ground in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh since August 2017, with a full-scale humanitarian response that is reaching over 64,000 Rohingya refugees.

Question 53

What are the essential arguments in Tony Blair’s Chicago speech (1999)

Answer 53

Blair argued that such an international community did exist, stating that “just as with domestic politics, the notion of community - the belief that partnership and cooperation are essential to advance self interest - needs to find an international echo”

He argued that national interests and international interest were increasingly difficult to separate

Question 54

Summarize the key elements of the UN’s “Responsibility to protect”

Answer 54

The “R2P” doctrine, agreed by the UN World Summit in 2005, confirmed that states had a “responsibility to protect” the populations of other states if they were suffering, or were likely to suffer, serious harm

Question 55

Military action would be justified by several core principles of liberalism according to the responsibility to protect. What are they?

Answer 55

The purpose of military action was coley to protect civilians, rather than to pursue narrow self-interest

The state/s could only intervene once it/they had made every effort to resolve the situation through non-military means, such as diplomacy and negotiation

Intervention could only take place if a UNSC Resolution authorised it (thereby making the intervention legitimate in the eyes of international law)

Yet military action must be proportionate, must be likely to succeed and must not make the situation worse