Theories of forgetting Flashcards
Availablity vs accessibility
Availability: if material is no longer stored in LTM then it is not available
Accessibility: if material is simply difficult to retrieve due to a lack of appropriate cues
Endel Tulving: Retrieval Failure Theory
§ Retrieval failure theory (cue dependent forgetting): proposes forgetting as the inability to retrieve material due to when the correct cues are not used or are not available.
§ Type of cue used determines amount of information retrieved from LTM.
o If the incorrect cues are used, we are likely to experience forgetting, that is, the memory trace is available but not accessible).
§ Retrieval cues: mental reminders or prompts created either deliberately, implicitly, or both, to assist our recollection later on.
§ It can come in a range of formats: context (context dependent cues), environment where the memory was encoded, emotional state (state dependent cues), physical objects, suggestions, smell, taste, sounds, and verbal stimuli.
§ Encoding specificity: the principle that how we encode information will determine our ability to retrieve that information later on
§ Tulving suggests that a good retrieval should be similar to the original encoding of the information (if the sound of the word was emphasised during encoding, then phonemic cues should be used, for the meaning of a word, semantic cues should be used).
Tip of the tongue
§ Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT): knowing that your memory has the information you are trying to remember but cannot retrieve it at that moment.
§ Although the exact information cannot be recalled, certain aspects of it are often recalled and are usually accurate (e.g. when trying to recall a word, we may remember the first letter or the length of it).
§ Shows that memories are stored in a complex manner in various locations of the brain.
- TOT is an example of intentionally searching for cues in order to retrieve a specific memory which is usually remembered 50% of the time.
§ On average, TOT occurs at least once a week; this increases as we get older.
§ Can be explained by the retrieval failure theory or the interference theory
Interference Theory
Interference theory (temporal confusability): explains why a memory trace that is available has become temporarily inaccessible, referring to difficulties in retrieving information from memory as a result of learning other material either previously or subsequently.
§ Proposes that one set of information in the memory competes with another set of information.
§ Interference is more likely to occur when two sets of material are very similar (e.g. learning Italian and French vs. Italian and Chinese).
Proactive interference
Proactive interference: when previously learnt material reduces our ability to retrieve new material. o Example: Learning French verbs → Learning Italian verbs → Retrieve correct Italian verbs for test.
Retroactive interference
Retroactive interference: when newly learnt material reduces our ability to retrieve previously learnt material.
o Example: Learned Italian verbs → Learning French verbs → Retrieve correct French verbs for Italian test
Strengths and LImitations of intereference theory
§ Theory has been readily replicated in laboratory settings and has face validity in terms of own personal experiences.
§ However, laboratory experiences tended to use tests of recall which are particularly prone to interference.
§ Recall in real life may not occur so readily in that when interesting material is semantically encoded, interference is limited (e.g. reading and remembering passages of meaningful information utilises semantic memory which is less prone to interference).
Sigmun Freud, motivated forgetting
§ Motivated forgetting: when there is an underlying motivation not to remember; may result from:
o Suppression: a conscious refusal to access memories that are readily and consciously available.
o Repression: painful/distressing memories are unconsciously pushed to an inaccessible part of the mind preventing these memories from coming into our conscious awareness.
- Repressed memories cannot be purposely brought into our conscious awareness but requires an event or experience to trigger it.
§ Such memories are not necessarily forgotten, but are difficult to retrieve.
§ Both are psychological processes but suppression deliberate whilst repression is involuntary.
Limitations of Freud’s theory of repression
§ Since individuals become unaware of their repressed memories, it is difficult to prove that such memories actually occurred (they may have been suggested or implanted in mind) unless such memories can be confirmed by another person who was present at the time of the event.
§ The above also applies to when individuals claim to have suddenly remembered a repressed memory; unless there is someone who can confirm this memory, there is no evidence to show such memories occurred in the past (and thus challenging the idea that for repressed memories to be brought back into our conscious awareness, something must trigger it).
Decay theory
§ Decay theory: memory traces in the brain will fade/decay over time through lack of use, eventually becoming unavailable.
§ Forgetting is a physiological process and is based on the idea that when a memory is laid down there is a physical or chemical trace of the experience in the brain.
§ This trace is believed to ‘fade’ as time passes (unless strengthened through repeated use).
§ Memories lost from sensory memory and STM are due to decay.
Limitations of decay theory
§ Has not been proven that decay is the cause of forgetting something in our LTM.
§ Unable to explain the sudden recollection (after lack of use) when presented with correct cues.
§ Individuals may also retrieve procedural memories even after years of not retrieving it (e.g. riding a bike, recognising names and faces of those from our childhood).
