Theories of Counseling and Helping Relationship Flashcards
The first studies, which demonstrated that animals could indeed be conditioned to control autonomic processes, were conducted by
Neal Miller
Edward Thorndike
law of effect,” which is also known as “trial and error learning.” This theory assumes that satisfying associations related to a given behavior will cause it to be “stamped in,” while those associated with annoying consequences are “stamped out. Practice per se does not ensure effective learn- ing. The practice must yield a reward.
Who demonstrated that “learning” could serve as a treatment for a phobic reaction.. cure
Mary Cover Jones
Who is very well known for his creation of a 5-point scale intended to measure empathy, genuineness, concreteness, and respect
Robert Carkhuff
the Edmund Jacobson relaxation method
Progressive relaxation technique
LPB and HPB stand for
low probability behavior and high probability behavior
Who created systematic desensitization?
Joseph Wolpe
Which law states that a moderate amount of arousal actually improves performance?
Yerkes-Dodson Law
4 steps of systematic desensitization
relaxation training, construction of anxiety hierarchy, de- sensitization in imagination(interposition), and in vivo desensitization.
What is behavioral sex therapy?
Sensate focus, developed by William H. Masters and Virginia Johnson
Who is is the Father of logotherapy, which is based on existentialism?
Viktor Frankl
the brainchild of T. G. Stampfl
Implosive therapy (imagination)
Existentialists speak of three worlds, the Umwelt or the _______ world, the Mitwelt or the _______ world, and the Eigenwelt or the _______ world.
physical, relationship, identity
What existential therapist name the client’s internal personal experience of events
phenomenology
What existential therapist name the philosophy of being and existing, metaphysical study of life experience
ontology
Father of reality therapy
William Glasser
Father of REBT (Rational-emotive behavior therapy)
Albert Ellis, Ph.D. (in the CBT family)
The philosopher most closely related to REBT would be
Epictetus, a stoic philosopher who suggested we feel the
way we think.
REBT suggests the ABC theory of personality in which A is the _______, B is the _______, and C is the _______.
activating event; belief system; emotional consequence
For test purposes please keep in mind that Ellis, Glasser, and the behaviorists put little stock in the notion of transference.
Who is the Father of rational-behavior therapy?
Maxie C. Maultsby, Jr., similar to REBT but RBT emphasizes a written self-analysis (in CBT family)
The cognitive therapist most closely associated with the concept of stress inoculation is
Donald Meichenbaum, Self-Instructional Therapy (in CBT family)
Hint: Describing the client using the P-A-C conceptualization is known as “structural analy-
sis.”
Berne (Parent- Adult- Child)
Hint: The act of looking at the consequences of games is known as “game analysis.”
Who created Gestalt therapy?
Fritz Perls, focuses on here and now, emphasize experiments and exercises.
Empathy and counselor effectiveness scales reflect the work of
Carkhuff and Gazda
The acronym NLP is an abbreviation of
Bandler and Grinder’s neurolinguistic programming, refraining” and “an- choring.” When using refraining the counselor helps the client to perceive a given situation in a new light so as to produce a new emotional reaction to it (e.g., a glass of water is not half empty; it is really half full). In anchoring, a desirable emotional state is evoked via an outside stimulus such as a touch or a sound or a specific bodily motion
Who invented psychodrama and the term group therapy
Jacob L. Moreno
Gestalt means
a form, figure, or configuration unified as a whole.
Perls suggested _______ which must be peeled away to reach emotional stability.
five layers of neurosis: the person has a 1 phony layer, 2 a phobic layer (fear that others will reject his or her uniqueness), 3 an impasse layer (the person feels struck), 4 the implosive layer (willingness to expose the true self), and 5 the explosive layer (person has relief due to authentic- ity.
Theoretical approach that believes individual is good and moves toward
growth and self-actualization.
Rogers (Person-Centered)
Theoretical approach that believes messages learned about self in childhood determine whether person is good or bad, though in- tervention can change this script.
Berne (Transactional Analysis)
Theoretical approach that is deterministic; people are controlled by biological instincts; are unsocialized, irrational; driven by uncon- scious forces such as sex and aggression.
Freud (Psychoanalysis)
Theoretical approach that believes people have a cultural/biological propensity to think in a disturbed manner but can be taught to use their capacity to react differently.
Ellis (Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy)
Which theoretical approach believes that people are not bad or good. People have the capacity to govern life effectively as “whole.” People are part of their environment and must be viewed as such.
Perls (Gestalt)
Which theoretical approach believes that individuals strive to meet basic physiological needs and the need to be worthwhile to self and others. Brain as control system tries to meet needs.
Glasser (Reality Therapy)
Which theoretical approach believes that man is basically good; much of behavior is determined via birth order.
Adler (Individual Psychology)
Which theoretical approach believes that man strives for individuation or a sense of self-fulfillment.
Jung (Analytic Psychology)
Which theoretical approach believes that humans are like other animals: mechanistic and controlled via environmental stimuli and reinforcement contingencies; not good or bad; no self-determination or freedom.
Skinner (Behavior Modification)
Which theoretical approach believes that person produces and is a product of conditioning.
Bandura (Neobehavioristic)
Which theoretical approach is an existential view is that humans are good, rational, and retain freedom of choice.
Frankl (Logotherapy)
Which theoretical approach believes that through education and scientific data, man can become himself. Humans are born with potential for good or evil. Others are needed to help unleash positive potential. Man is mainly rational, not intuitive.
Williamson (Trait-factor)
Allen E. Ivey has postulated three types of empathy
basic, subtractive, and additive (additive being the best)
The trait-and-factor theory (aka actuarial or matching approach)
assumed that via psychological testing one’s personality could be matched to an occupation which stressed those par- ticular personality traits
the developmental approach (career)
views career decisions as longitudinal and reversible
The trait-and-factor career counseling, actuarial, or matching approach (which matches clients with a job) is associated with
Parsons and Williamson
Edmund Griffith Williamson’s work (or the so-called Minnesota Viewpoint) purports to be scientific and didactic, utilizing test data from instruments such as the
Minnesota Occupational Rating Scales.
Anne Roe suggested a personality approach to career choice (“person-environment” theory)
based on the premise that a job satisfies an unconscious need. career choice is influenced by genetics, parent–child interaction, unconscious motivators, current needs, interests (people/things), education, and intelligence. Anna Roe categorized occupations by fields and levels
Some support for Roe’s theory comes from
the Rorschach and the TAT
Roe recognized the role of the unconscious mind in terms of ca- reer choice. Another theorist who emphasized the unconscious processes in this area of study was
Bordin, psychoanalytic approach to career counseling
Brill (also psychoanalytic approach to career counseling emphasized what as an ego defense mechanism
sublimation
Today, the most popular approach to career choice reflects
the work of John Holland. John Holland’s theory can be best described by his four assumptions. First, in our culture, there are six basic personality types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, or conventional (RIASEC). Second, most work environments correspond to six personality types. Third, people search out an agreeable environment which lets them express their personality type. Fourth, the individual’s behavior is determined by an interaction of the personality and the environment. Possible memory device for the six types of personality/environments: “as rice.” Holland’s Self-Directed Search (SDS) is designed to measure the six personality types.
Most experts in the field of career counseling would classify Roe, Brill, and Holland as _______ theorists.
personality..Remember: your exam could use the term structural theory in place of the term personality theory (career counseling)
Hop- pock’s theory, based on the work of _______ is also considered a personality approach.
Henry Murray, also created the “needs-press” theory and the TAT (along with Christina Morgan) projective test
The most popular developmental career theorist is who and what does he emphasize
Donald Super, the self-concept. (s&S), emphasizes 5 life stages, Developmental theories like Donald Super’s emphasize longitudinal career-related behavior.
Research into the phenomenon of career maturity reflects the work of
John Crites
The decision-making theory, which refers to periods of anticipation and implementation/adjustment, was proposed by
David Tiedeman and Robert O’Hara
John Krumboltz postulated a social learning approach to career choice. This model is based mainly on the work of
Albert Bandura
Two popular behavioral techniques (though they are not necessarily just related to the work of Krumboltz) include the RJP or realistic job preview and guided imagery. To conduct a RJP the student, usually in college, would contact a worker in the field and then in- terview the worker. Guided imagery, effective for adults and adolescents, can be implemented by having the client imagine a day in the future working in the job or even receiving an award for outstanding performance in the position.
The career model Krumboltz suggested is
a behavioristic model of career development, Some textbooks and exams may categorize Krumboltz’s theory as a decision-making theory or even a cognitive one. Krumboltz believed that decision making—in terms of career options as well as non-career options—is a skill which can be learned. Krumboltz acknowledged the role of genetics and the environment but focused on what can be changed via learning
A fairly recent model to explain career development is the deci- sion approach. The Gelatt Decision Model created by Harry B.
Gelatt refers to information as “the fuel of the decision.” The Gelatt Model asserts that information can be organized into three systems
predictive, value, and decision: predictive system is concerned with the probable alternatives, actions, and possibilities. The person’s value system is concerned with one’s relative preferences regarding the outcomes, while the decision system provides rules and criteria for evaluating the outcome.
Crites (career) theory
focuses mainly on the concept of career maturity
Linda Gottfredson’s developmental theory of career focuses on
circumscription and compromise theory. According to Gottfredson people do restrict choices (circum- scription) and when people do compromise in regard to picking a job (and indeed she feels they do) they will often sacrifice the field of work before they sacrifice sextype or prestige
Self-efficacy theory is based on the work of
Albert Bandura, Bandura proposed that one’s belief or expectation of being suc- cessful in an occupation causes the individual to gravitate toward that particular occupation. Bandura felt that “chance factors,” such as accidentally being exposed to certain situations, influ- ence career development.
Which counselor would most likely say that we choose a job to meet our needs?
Robert Hoppock, Hoppock, the correct theorist here, feels that to make an accurate career decision you must know your personal needs and then find an occupation that meets a high percentage of the needs. Lastly, as your personal needs change you might need to secure a different occupation.
Know Ipsative measures compare traits within the same individual, they do not compare a person to other persons who took the instrument.
A test format could be normative or ipsative. In the normative format
each item is independent of all other items
A client who takes a normative test
can legitimately be compared to others who have taken the test.
A test battery is considered
a horizontal test. In a test battery, several measures are used to produce results that could be more accurate than those derived from merely using a single source. Say, this can get confusing. Remember, that in the section on group processes I talked about vertical and horizontal interventions. In testing, a vertical test would have versions for various age brackets or levels of education (e.g., a math achievement test for preschoolers and a version for middle-school children). A horizontal test measures various factors (e.g., math and science) during the same testing procedure.
Which is more important, validity or reliability?
Validity
Describe the five different types of validity
- content validity or what is sometimes called rational or logical validity. Does the test examine or sample the behavior under scrutiny? An IQ test, for example, that did not sample the entire range of intelligence (say the test just sampled memory and not vocabulary, math, etc.) would have poor con- tent validity. In this case a savant might truly score higher than a well-rounded individual with genius level mentality. 2. Construct validity, which refers to a test’s ability to measure a theoretical construct like intelligence, self-esteem, artistic talent, mechanical ability, or managerial potential. 3 is con-current validity, which deals with how well the test compares to other instruments that are intended for the same purpose. 4, predictive validity, also known as empirical validity, which reflects the test’s ability to predict future behavior accord- ing to established criteria. On some exams, concurrent validity and predictive validity are often lumped under the umbrella of “criterion validity,” since concurrent validity and predictive validity are actually different types of criterion-related validity. Fifth, a small body of literature speaks of consequential validity, which simply tries to ascertain the social implications of using tests.
Reliability places a ceiling on validity, but validity does not set the limits on reliability.
A reliable test is _______ valid.
not always (think broken scale that reliably says youre 109 when really youre 143)
A valid test is _______ reliable.
always
One method of testing reliability is to give the same population alternate forms of the identical test. Each form will have the same psychometric/statistical properties as the original instrument. This is known as
equivalent or alternate forms reliability
A reliability coefficient of 1.00 indicates
a perfect score which has no error.
A researcher working with a personality test discovers that the test has a reliability coefficient of .70 which is somewhat typical. This indicates that
70% of the score is accurate while 30% is inaccurate.
A career counselor is using a test for job selection purposes. An acceptable reliability coefficient would be _______ or higher.
.80. This is a tricky question. Although .70 is generally acceptable for most psychological attributes, for admissions for jobs, schools, and so on, it should be at least .80 and some experts will not settle for less than .90.
_______ did research and concluded that intelligence was normally distributed like height or weight and that it was primarily genetic.
Francis Galton
J. P. Guilford isolated 120 factors which added up to intelligence. He also is remembered for his
thoughts on convergent and divergent thinking, Convergent thinking occurs when divergent thoughts and ideas are combined into a singular concept. Divergent thinking is the ability to generate a novel idea.
The first intelligence test was created by
Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon
Lewis M. Terman of Stanford University published an American version of the Binet that was translated into English and adapted to American children. And in case you haven’t already guessed,
the word “Stanford” was added to the name.
The Stanford Binet IQ test
IQ stands for intelligence quotient, which is expressed by
MA/CA×100, he test is Binet’s, but the famous formula was created by the German, Wilhelm Stern. The formula produced what is known as a “ratio IQ.” Today, a “deviation IQ” is utilized which com- pares the individual to a norm (i.e., the person is compared to others in his or her age group). Thus, the present score indicates “deviation” from the norm. Okay, now just to be sure that you are really picking this up let me say it in a slightly different way: Although we still use the term IQ, the Binet today actually relies on a standard age score (SAS) with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 16. So then you see, the IQ isn’t really an IQ after all—right?
The Binet stressed age-related tasks. Utilizing this method, a 9- year-old task would be one which
50% of the 9-year-olds could answer correctly.
Today the Stanford-Binet is used from ages 2 to adulthood. The IQ formula has been replaced by the
SAS, SAS stands for “standard age score.”
Important exam hint: When a test is guided via a theory it is known as a theory-based test or inventory.
Age specific Welscher tests
the WPPSI or the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, is suitable for children ages 2 years 6 months to 7 years, three months. Choice “b,” the WAIS-III Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale is intended for ages 16 and beyond. Choice “c,” the WISC-IV Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children , is appropriate for kids 6 to 16 years, 11 months.
The mean on the Wechsler and the Binet is _______ and the standard deviation is _______.
100; 15 Wechsler, 16 Stanford-Binet. IQs above 100 are above average and those shy of 100 are below average.
The group IQ test movement began
with the Army Alpha and Army Beta in World War I.
who is responsible for the fluid (inherited neurological that decreases with age and is not very dependent on culture) and crystallized intelligence (intelligence from experiential, cultural, and educational interaction). Crystallized intelligence is measured by tests that focus on content. Fluid intelligence is tested by what has been called “content-free reasoning” such as a block design or a pictorial analogy problem.
Raymond B. Cattell
The Black versus White IQ controversy was sparked mainly by a 1969 article written by _______.
Arthur Jensen. he suggested in a 1969 Harvard Educational Review article (“How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Performance?”) that the closer people are genetically, the more alike their IQ scores. Adopted children, for example, will sport IQs closer to their biological parents than to their adopted ones. Jensen then leveled the charge that Whites score 11 to 15 IQ points higher than Blacks (regardless of social class). His theory stated that due to slavery it was possible that Blacks were bred for strength rather than intelligence. He estimated that heredity contributed 80%, while environment influenced 20% of the IQ.
The 16 PF reflects the work of
Raymond B. Cattell, The 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire is suitable for persons 16 and above and has been the subject of over 2,000 papers or other communications! The test measures key personality factors such as assertiveness, emotional maturity, and shrewdness. Tests and inventories like the 16 PF that analyze data outside of a given theory are called factor-analytic tests or inventories rather than theory-based tests.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator reflects the work of
Carl Jung
Who is noted for his Mental Measurements Yearbook, which was the first major publication to review available tests.
Oscar K. Buros
Both the Rorschach and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) are projective tests. The Rorschach uses 10 inkblot cards while the TAT uses
pictures
A counselor who fears the client has an organic, neurological, or motoric difficulty would most likely use the
The Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (named after Lauretta Bender) is actually an expressive projective measure, though first and foremost it is known for its ability to discern whether brain damage is evident. Suitable for ages 4 and beyond the cli- ent is instructed to copy nine geometric figures which the client can look at while constructing his or her drawing.
A counselor who had an interest primarily in testing would most likely be a member of
AMECD, This ACA Division is the Association for Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development.
Who Americanized the Binet?
Lewis Terman
refers to whether the experimental research results can be generalized to larger populations (i.e., other people, settings or conditions)
external validity, if the results of the study only apply to the population in the study itself then the external validity is said to be low
refers to whether the DVs were truly influenced by the experimental IVs
internal validity
refers to statistical procedures that use the important or underlying “fac- tors” in an attempt to summarize a lot of variables
factor analysis Hence, a test which measures a counselor’s ability may try to describe the
three most important variables (factors) that make an effective helper, although literally hundreds of factors may exist. Using factor analysis procedures, a brief test that measures the three major factors maybe able to predict who will be an effective counselor as accurately as 10 other tests that examine hundreds of variables or so-called factors.
nonparametric statistical measure that tests whether a distribution differs significantly from an expected theoretical distribution
chi-square
parsimony aka Occam’s Razor
interpret the results in the simplest manner.
Test hint: The American Psychological Association’s Journal of Counsel- ing Psychology publishes more counseling research arti- cles than any other periodical in our field.
is conducted to advance our knowledge of how theories, skills, and techniques can be used in terms of practical application.
applied research (also called action research or experience-near research)
is conducted to advance our under- standing of theory
basic research
Exam score booster: If your exam describes a true experiment—such as the biofeedback research described in the next several questions—except for the fact that the groups were not randomly assigned, then the new exams are calling this a causal comparative design. Expect to see this term on the exam. Data gleaned from the causal comparative ex-post facto or after the fact design can be analyzed with a test of significance (e.g., a t test or ANOVA) just like any true experiment.
Remember that if you cannot randomly assign the subjects to the two groups then your exam will consider the research a quasi-experiment
Hypothesis testing is most closely related to the work of
R. A. Fisher
is a statement which can be tested regarding the relationship of the IV and the DV.
a hypothesis
which is a study that analyzes the findings of numerous studies.
meta-analysis, hence, a study of reality therapy that looked at the results of 20 reality therapy studies would be a meta-analysis.
In the social sciences the accepted probability level is usually
.05 or less.
Type I and Type II errors are called _______ and _______ respectively.
alpha; beta A Type I (alpha error) occurs when a researcher rejects the null hypothesis when it is true; and a Type II error (beta error) occurs when you accept null when it is false. The memory device RA (as in “residence advisor”) works well here so you can remember the principle as well as the sequence. Let “R” signify “reject when true” and “A”—which comes after “R”—signify “accept when false.”
Important: A positive correlation is not a stronger relationship than a negative one of the same numerical value. A correlation of −.70 is still indicative of a stronger relationship than a positive correlation of .60. The minus sign merely describes the fact that as one variable goes up the other goes down.
Hot hint: I want you to commit to memory the fact that the 68-95-99.7 rule or empirical rule states that in a normal distribution 68% of the scores fall within plus/minus 1 standard devia- tion (SD) of the mean; 95% within 2 SDs of the mean; and 99.7% within 3 SDs of the mean. The verdict: almost all the scores will fall between 3 SDs of the mean
A sociogram is to a counseling group as a scattergram is to
a correlation coefficient
Z-scores are the same as standard deviations!
In fact, z- scores are often called standard scores.
Experiential conjoint family therapy is closely related to the work of
Virginia Satir, she felt that the family could be healed via love
is sometimes called the dean of experien- tial family therapy.
Carl Whitaker. Your exam may refer to Whitaker’s approach as experiential symbolic family therapy. was fond of saying that experience, not education, changes families. Psychotherapy of the absurd
was a pioneer in the early history of family therapy
Alfred Adler
Which therapist could best be described as atheoretical
Carl Whitaker. Whitaker asserted that theory is often used as an excuse to keep therapists emotionally distant from the family.
Narrative therapy (NT), which highlights stories in counseling, is associated with the work of
Michael White, his wife Cheryl White, and David
Epston.
Narrative therapy fits in a new category of treatment known as postmodernism or constructivism. Constructivism or social constructivism asserts that a client constructs or invents the way he or she perceives the world. Clients come up with a story about their lives and they can reauthor these stories in therapy. Simply put: Reality is invented or constructed; it is not objective.
Constructivism is not really a unified therapy based on a single individual but rather the theorists mentioned in this question as well as the trail blazers mentioned in the previous two questions. The theory stresses that therapy should be less hierarchical. A helper does not treat a client. Instead the client and the therapist have a conversation to work together in a collaborative effort.
Which theorist would most likely assert that EQ is more important than IQ?
Daniel Goleman
Behaviorism was outlined by which 4 people
John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, Joseph Wolpe, and B. F. Skinner. Initially the mind is a blank slate and the child learns to behave in a certain manner. This is basically a passive theory. The mind is like a computer that is fed information. This model relies on empiricism—John Locke’s view that knowledge is acquired by experience. All behavior is the result of learning.
Jean Piaget’s Qualitative Four Stages of Cognitive Development (Genetic Epistemology)
Theory: Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years); Pre-operational (2 to 7 years); Concrete Operations (7 to 12 years); and Formal Operations (11/12 to 16).
Erik Erikson’s Eight Psychosocial Stages
Trust versus mistrust (birth to age 11⁄2 years); autonomy versus shame and doubt (11⁄2 to 3 years); initiative versus guilt (3 to 6 years); industry versus inferiority (6 to 11 years): identity versus role confusion (12 to 18 years); intimacy versus isolation (18 to 35 years); generativity versus stagnation (35 to 60 years); and integrity versus despair (age 65 and beyond).
Keagan’s Constructive Developmental Model
Keagan’s model emphasizes the impact of interpersonal interaction and our perception of reality
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Three Levels of Moral Development
Each level has two stages: pre-conventional level—behavior governed by consequences; conventional level—a desire to conform to socially acceptable rules; postconventional level—self-accepted moral principles guide behavior.
Freud’s Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Five Psychosexual Stages
Freud’s stages are: oral (birth to one year), anal (1 to 3 years), phallic/ Oedipal Electra complex (3 to 7 years), latency (3 to 5 until age 12), and genital (adolescence and adulthood).
William Perry’s Three Stage Theory of Intellectual and Ethical Development in Adults/College Students
Dualism in which students view the truth as either right or wrong. Relativism is the notion that a perfect answer may not exist. There is a desire to know various opinions. Commitment to relativism—in this final stage the individual is willing to change his or opinion based on novel facts and new points of view.
James W. Fowler’s Prestage Plus Six Stage Theory of Faith and Spiritual Development
Fowler conducted 350 structured interviews and drew on the work of Piaget, Kohlberg, and Erikson. Stage 0 undifferentiated (primal) faith (infancy, birth to 4 years); Stage 1 intuitive-projective faith (2 to 7 years, early childhood); mythic-literal faith (childhood and beyond); synthetic-conventional faith (adolescence and beyond) a stage of conformity); individuative reflective faith (young adult- hood and beyond); conjunctive faith (midthirties and beyond) open- ness to other points of view, paradox, and appreciation of symbols and metaphors; and universalizing faith (midlife and beyond) few reach this stage of enlightenment.
The autoplastic–alloplastic dilemma
Autoplastic implies that the counselor helps the client change to cope with his or her environment. Alloplastic occurs when the counselor has the client try to change the environment.
Androgynous/androgyny
the notion that psychologically healthy people possess both masculine and feminine characteristics.
