Theories of Counseling and Helping Relationship

Question 1

The first studies, which demonstrated that animals could indeed be conditioned to control autonomic processes, were conducted by

Answer 1

Neal Miller

Question 2

Edward Thorndike

Answer 2

law of effect,” which is also known as “trial and error learning.” This theory assumes that satisfying associations related to a given behavior will cause it to be “stamped in,” while those associated with annoying consequences are “stamped out. Practice per se does not ensure effective learn- ing. The practice must yield a reward.

Question 3

Who demonstrated that “learning” could serve as a treatment for a phobic reaction.. cure

Answer 3

Mary Cover Jones

Question 4

Who is very well known for his creation of a 5-point scale intended to measure empathy, genuineness, concreteness, and respect

Answer 4

Robert Carkhuff

Question 5

the Edmund Jacobson relaxation method

Answer 5

Progressive relaxation technique

Question 6

LPB and HPB stand for

Answer 6

low probability behavior and high probability behavior

Question 7

Who created systematic desensitization?

Answer 7

Joseph Wolpe

Question 8

Which law states that a moderate amount of arousal actually improves performance?

Answer 8

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Question 9

4 steps of systematic desensitization

Answer 9

relaxation training, construction of anxiety hierarchy, de- sensitization in imagination(interposition), and in vivo desensitization.

Question 10

What is behavioral sex therapy?

Answer 10

Sensate focus, developed by William H. Masters and Virginia Johnson

Question 11

Who is is the Father of logotherapy, which is based on existentialism?

Answer 11

Viktor Frankl

Question 12

the brainchild of T. G. Stampfl

Answer 12

Implosive therapy (imagination)

Question 13

Existentialists speak of three worlds, the Umwelt or the _______ world, the Mitwelt or the _______ world, and the Eigenwelt or the _______ world.

Answer 13

physical, relationship, identity

Question 14

What existential therapist name the client’s internal personal experience of events

Answer 14

phenomenology

Question 15

What existential therapist name the philosophy of being and existing, metaphysical study of life experience

Answer 15

ontology

Question 16

Father of reality therapy

Answer 16

William Glasser

Question 17

Father of REBT (Rational-emotive behavior therapy)

Answer 17

Albert Ellis, Ph.D. (in the CBT family)

Question 18

The philosopher most closely related to REBT would be

Answer 18

Epictetus, a stoic philosopher who suggested we feel the
way we think.

Question 19

REBT suggests the ABC theory of personality in which A is the _______, B is the _______, and C is the _______.

Answer 19

activating event; belief system; emotional consequence

Question 20

For test purposes please keep in mind that Ellis, Glasser, and the behaviorists put little stock in the notion of transference.

Question 21

Who is the Father of rational-behavior therapy?

Answer 21

Maxie C. Maultsby, Jr., similar to REBT but RBT emphasizes a written self-analysis (in CBT family)

Question 22

The cognitive therapist most closely associated with the concept of stress inoculation is

Answer 22

Donald Meichenbaum, Self-Instructional Therapy (in CBT family)

Question 23

Hint: Describing the client using the P-A-C conceptualization is known as “structural analy-
sis.”

Answer 23

Berne (Parent- Adult- Child)

Question 24

Hint: The act of looking at the consequences of games is known as “game analysis.”

Question 25

Who created Gestalt therapy?

Answer 25

Fritz Perls, focuses on here and now, emphasize experiments and exercises.

Question 26

Empathy and counselor effectiveness scales reflect the work of

Answer 26

Carkhuff and Gazda

Question 27

The acronym NLP is an abbreviation of

Answer 27

Bandler and Grinder’s neurolinguistic programming, refraining” and “an- choring.” When using refraining the counselor helps the client to perceive a given situation in a new light so as to produce a new emotional reaction to it (e.g., a glass of water is not half empty; it is really half full). In anchoring, a desirable emotional state is evoked via an outside stimulus such as a touch or a sound or a specific bodily motion

Question 28

Who invented psychodrama and the term group therapy

Answer 28

Jacob L. Moreno

Question 29

Gestalt means

Answer 29

a form, figure, or configuration unified as a whole.

Question 30

Perls suggested _______ which must be peeled away to reach emotional stability.

Answer 30

five layers of neurosis: the person has a 1 phony layer, 2 a phobic layer (fear that others will reject his or her uniqueness), 3 an impasse layer (the person feels struck), 4 the implosive layer (willingness to expose the true self), and 5 the explosive layer (person has relief due to authentic- ity.

Question 31

Theoretical approach that believes individual is good and moves toward
growth and self-actualization.

Answer 31

Rogers (Person-Centered)

Question 32

Theoretical approach that believes messages learned about self in childhood determine whether person is good or bad, though in- tervention can change this script.

Answer 32

Berne (Transactional Analysis)

Question 33

Theoretical approach that is deterministic; people are controlled by biological instincts; are unsocialized, irrational; driven by uncon- scious forces such as sex and aggression.

Answer 33

Freud (Psychoanalysis)

Question 34

Theoretical approach that believes people have a cultural/biological propensity to think in a disturbed manner but can be taught to use their capacity to react differently.

Answer 34

Ellis (Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy)

Question 35

Which theoretical approach believes that people are not bad or good. People have the capacity to govern life effectively as “whole.” People are part of their environment and must be viewed as such.

Answer 35

Perls (Gestalt)

Question 36

Which theoretical approach believes that individuals strive to meet basic physiological needs and the need to be worthwhile to self and others. Brain as control system tries to meet needs.

Answer 36

Glasser (Reality Therapy)

Question 37

Which theoretical approach believes that man is basically good; much of behavior is determined via birth order.

Answer 37

Adler (Individual Psychology)

Question 38

Which theoretical approach believes that man strives for individuation or a sense of self-fulfillment.

Answer 38

Jung (Analytic Psychology)

Question 39

Which theoretical approach believes that humans are like other animals: mechanistic and controlled via environmental stimuli and reinforcement contingencies; not good or bad; no self-determination or freedom.

Answer 39

Skinner (Behavior Modification)

Question 40

Which theoretical approach believes that person produces and is a product of conditioning.

Answer 40

Bandura (Neobehavioristic)

Question 41

Which theoretical approach is an existential view is that humans are good, rational, and retain freedom of choice.

Answer 41

Frankl (Logotherapy)

Question 42

Which theoretical approach believes that through education and scientific data, man can become himself. Humans are born with potential for good or evil. Others are needed to help unleash positive potential. Man is mainly rational, not intuitive.

Answer 42

Williamson (Trait-factor)

Question 43

Allen E. Ivey has postulated three types of empathy

Answer 43

basic, subtractive, and additive (additive being the best)

Question 44

The trait-and-factor theory (aka actuarial or matching approach)

Answer 44

assumed that via psychological testing one’s personality could be matched to an occupation which stressed those par- ticular personality traits

Question 45

the developmental approach (career)

Answer 45

views career decisions as longitudinal and reversible

Question 46

The trait-and-factor career counseling, actuarial, or matching approach (which matches clients with a job) is associated with

Answer 46

Parsons and Williamson

Question 47

Edmund Griffith Williamson’s work (or the so-called Minnesota Viewpoint) purports to be scientific and didactic, utilizing test data from instruments such as the

Answer 47

Minnesota Occupational Rating Scales.

Question 48

Anne Roe suggested a personality approach to career choice (“person-environment” theory)

Answer 48

based on the premise that a job satisfies an unconscious need. career choice is influenced by genetics, parent–child interaction, unconscious motivators, current needs, interests (people/things), education, and intelligence. Anna Roe categorized occupations by fields and levels

Question 49

Some support for Roe’s theory comes from

Answer 49

the Rorschach and the TAT

Question 50

Roe recognized the role of the unconscious mind in terms of ca- reer choice. Another theorist who emphasized the unconscious processes in this area of study was

Answer 50

Bordin, psychoanalytic approach to career counseling

Question 51

Brill (also psychoanalytic approach to career counseling emphasized what as an ego defense mechanism

Answer 51

sublimation

Question 52

Today, the most popular approach to career choice reflects

Answer 52

the work of John Holland. John Holland’s theory can be best described by his four assumptions. First, in our culture, there are six basic personality types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, or conventional (RIASEC). Second, most work environments correspond to six personality types. Third, people search out an agreeable environment which lets them express their personality type. Fourth, the individual’s behavior is determined by an interaction of the personality and the environment. Possible memory device for the six types of personality/environments: “as rice.” Holland’s Self-Directed Search (SDS) is designed to measure the six personality types.

Question 53

Most experts in the field of career counseling would classify Roe, Brill, and Holland as _______ theorists.

Answer 53

personality..Remember: your exam could use the term structural theory in place of the term personality theory (career counseling)

Question 54

Hop- pock’s theory, based on the work of _______ is also considered a personality approach.

Answer 54

Henry Murray, also created the “needs-press” theory and the TAT (along with Christina Morgan) projective test

Question 55

The most popular developmental career theorist is who and what does he emphasize

Answer 55

Donald Super, the self-concept. (s&S), emphasizes 5 life stages, Developmental theories like Donald Super’s emphasize longitudinal career-related behavior.

Question 56

Research into the phenomenon of career maturity reflects the work of

Answer 56

John Crites

Question 57

The decision-making theory, which refers to periods of anticipation and implementation/adjustment, was proposed by

Answer 57

David Tiedeman and Robert O’Hara

Question 58

John Krumboltz postulated a social learning approach to career choice. This model is based mainly on the work of

Answer 58

Albert Bandura

Question 59

Two popular behavioral techniques (though they are not necessarily just related to the work of Krumboltz) include the RJP or realistic job preview and guided imagery. To conduct a RJP the student, usually in college, would contact a worker in the field and then in- terview the worker. Guided imagery, effective for adults and adolescents, can be implemented by having the client imagine a day in the future working in the job or even receiving an award for outstanding performance in the position.

Question 60

The career model Krumboltz suggested is

Answer 60

a behavioristic model of career development, Some textbooks and exams may categorize Krumboltz’s theory as a decision-making theory or even a cognitive one. Krumboltz believed that decision making—in terms of career options as well as non-career options—is a skill which can be learned. Krumboltz acknowledged the role of genetics and the environment but focused on what can be changed via learning

Question 61

A fairly recent model to explain career development is the deci- sion approach. The Gelatt Decision Model created by Harry B.
Gelatt refers to information as “the fuel of the decision.” The Gelatt Model asserts that information can be organized into three systems

Answer 61

predictive, value, and decision: predictive system is concerned with the probable alternatives, actions, and possibilities. The person’s value system is concerned with one’s relative preferences regarding the outcomes, while the decision system provides rules and criteria for evaluating the outcome.

Question 62

Crites (career) theory

Answer 62

focuses mainly on the concept of career maturity

Question 63

Linda Gottfredson’s developmental theory of career focuses on

Answer 63

circumscription and compromise theory. According to Gottfredson people do restrict choices (circum- scription) and when people do compromise in regard to picking a job (and indeed she feels they do) they will often sacrifice the field of work before they sacrifice sextype or prestige

Question 64

Self-efficacy theory is based on the work of

Answer 64

Albert Bandura, Bandura proposed that one’s belief or expectation of being suc- cessful in an occupation causes the individual to gravitate toward that particular occupation. Bandura felt that “chance factors,” such as accidentally being exposed to certain situations, influ- ence career development.

Question 65

Which counselor would most likely say that we choose a job to meet our needs?

Answer 65

Robert Hoppock, Hoppock, the correct theorist here, feels that to make an accurate career decision you must know your personal needs and then find an occupation that meets a high percentage of the needs. Lastly, as your personal needs change you might need to secure a different occupation.

Question 66

Know Ipsative measures compare traits within the same individual, they do not compare a person to other persons who took the instrument.

Question 67

A test format could be normative or ipsative. In the normative format

Answer 67

each item is independent of all other items

Question 68

A client who takes a normative test

Answer 68

can legitimately be compared to others who have taken the test.

Question 69

A test battery is considered

Answer 69

a horizontal test. In a test battery, several measures are used to produce results that could be more accurate than those derived from merely using a single source. Say, this can get confusing. Remember, that in the section on group processes I talked about vertical and horizontal interventions. In testing, a vertical test would have versions for various age brackets or levels of education (e.g., a math achievement test for preschoolers and a version for middle-school children). A horizontal test measures various factors (e.g., math and science) during the same testing procedure.

Question 70

Which is more important, validity or reliability?

Answer 70

Validity

Question 71

Describe the five different types of validity

Answer 71

1. content validity or what is sometimes called rational or logical validity. Does the test examine or sample the behavior under scrutiny? An IQ test, for example, that did not sample the entire range of intelligence (say the test just sampled memory and not vocabulary, math, etc.) would have poor con- tent validity. In this case a savant might truly score higher than a well-rounded individual with genius level mentality. 2. Construct validity, which refers to a test’s ability to measure a theoretical construct like intelligence, self-esteem, artistic talent, mechanical ability, or managerial potential. 3 is con-current validity, which deals with how well the test compares to other instruments that are intended for the same purpose. 4, predictive validity, also known as empirical validity, which reflects the test’s ability to predict future behavior accord- ing to established criteria. On some exams, concurrent validity and predictive validity are often lumped under the umbrella of “criterion validity,” since concurrent validity and predictive validity are actually different types of criterion-related validity. Fifth, a small body of literature speaks of consequential validity, which simply tries to ascertain the social implications of using tests.

Question 72

Reliability places a ceiling on validity, but validity does not set the limits on reliability.

Question 73

A reliable test is _______ valid.

Answer 73

not always (think broken scale that reliably says youre 109 when really youre 143)

Question 74

A valid test is _______ reliable.

Answer 74

always

Question 75

One method of testing reliability is to give the same population alternate forms of the identical test. Each form will have the same psychometric/statistical properties as the original instrument. This is known as

Answer 75

equivalent or alternate forms reliability

Question 76

A reliability coefficient of 1.00 indicates

Answer 76

a perfect score which has no error.

Question 77

A researcher working with a personality test discovers that the test has a reliability coefficient of .70 which is somewhat typical. This indicates that

Answer 77

70% of the score is accurate while 30% is inaccurate.

Question 78

A career counselor is using a test for job selection purposes. An acceptable reliability coefficient would be _______ or higher.

Answer 78

.80. This is a tricky question. Although .70 is generally acceptable for most psychological attributes, for admissions for jobs, schools, and so on, it should be at least .80 and some experts will not settle for less than .90.

Question 79

_______ did research and concluded that intelligence was normally distributed like height or weight and that it was primarily genetic.

Answer 79

Francis Galton

Question 80

J. P. Guilford isolated 120 factors which added up to intelligence. He also is remembered for his

Answer 80

thoughts on convergent and divergent thinking, Convergent thinking occurs when divergent thoughts and ideas are combined into a singular concept. Divergent thinking is the ability to generate a novel idea.

Question 81

The first intelligence test was created by

Answer 81

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon

Question 82

Lewis M. Terman of Stanford University published an American version of the Binet that was translated into English and adapted to American children. And in case you haven’t already guessed,
the word “Stanford” was added to the name.

Answer 82

The Stanford Binet IQ test

Question 83

IQ stands for intelligence quotient, which is expressed by

Answer 83

MA/CA×100, he test is Binet’s, but the famous formula was created by the German, Wilhelm Stern. The formula produced what is known as a “ratio IQ.” Today, a “deviation IQ” is utilized which com- pares the individual to a norm (i.e., the person is compared to others in his or her age group). Thus, the present score indicates “deviation” from the norm. Okay, now just to be sure that you are really picking this up let me say it in a slightly different way: Although we still use the term IQ, the Binet today actually relies on a standard age score (SAS) with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 16. So then you see, the IQ isn’t really an IQ after all—right?

Question 84

The Binet stressed age-related tasks. Utilizing this method, a 9- year-old task would be one which

Answer 84

50% of the 9-year-olds could answer correctly.

Question 85

Today the Stanford-Binet is used from ages 2 to adulthood. The IQ formula has been replaced by the

Answer 85

SAS, SAS stands for “standard age score.”

Question 86

Important exam hint: When a test is guided via a theory it is known as a theory-based test or inventory.

Question 87

Age specific Welscher tests

Answer 87

the WPPSI or the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, is suitable for children ages 2 years 6 months to 7 years, three months. Choice “b,” the WAIS-III Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale is intended for ages 16 and beyond. Choice “c,” the WISC-IV Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children , is appropriate for kids 6 to 16 years, 11 months.

Question 88

The mean on the Wechsler and the Binet is _______ and the standard deviation is _______.

Answer 88

100; 15 Wechsler, 16 Stanford-Binet. IQs above 100 are above average and those shy of 100 are below average.

Question 89

The group IQ test movement began

Answer 89

with the Army Alpha and Army Beta in World War I.

Question 90

who is responsible for the fluid (inherited neurological that decreases with age and is not very dependent on culture) and crystallized intelligence (intelligence from experiential, cultural, and educational interaction). Crystallized intelligence is measured by tests that focus on content. Fluid intelligence is tested by what has been called “content-free reasoning” such as a block design or a pictorial analogy problem.

Answer 90

Raymond B. Cattell

Question 91

The Black versus White IQ controversy was sparked mainly by a 1969 article written by _______.

Answer 91

Arthur Jensen. he suggested in a 1969 Harvard Educational Review article (“How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Performance?”) that the closer people are genetically, the more alike their IQ scores. Adopted children, for example, will sport IQs closer to their biological parents than to their adopted ones. Jensen then leveled the charge that Whites score 11 to 15 IQ points higher than Blacks (regardless of social class). His theory stated that due to slavery it was possible that Blacks were bred for strength rather than intelligence. He estimated that heredity contributed 80%, while environment influenced 20% of the IQ.

Question 92

The 16 PF reflects the work of

Answer 92

Raymond B. Cattell, The 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire is suitable for persons 16 and above and has been the subject of over 2,000 papers or other communications! The test measures key personality factors such as assertiveness, emotional maturity, and shrewdness. Tests and inventories like the 16 PF that analyze data outside of a given theory are called factor-analytic tests or inventories rather than theory-based tests.

Question 93

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator reflects the work of

Answer 93

Carl Jung

Question 94

Who is noted for his Mental Measurements Yearbook, which was the first major publication to review available tests.

Answer 94

Oscar K. Buros

Question 95

Both the Rorschach and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) are projective tests. The Rorschach uses 10 inkblot cards while the TAT uses

Answer 95

pictures

Question 96

A counselor who fears the client has an organic, neurological, or motoric difficulty would most likely use the

Answer 96

The Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (named after Lauretta Bender) is actually an expressive projective measure, though first and foremost it is known for its ability to discern whether brain damage is evident. Suitable for ages 4 and beyond the cli- ent is instructed to copy nine geometric figures which the client can look at while constructing his or her drawing.

Question 97

A counselor who had an interest primarily in testing would most likely be a member of

Answer 97

AMECD, This ACA Division is the Association for Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development.

Question 98

Who Americanized the Binet?

Answer 98

Lewis Terman

Question 99

refers to whether the experimental research results can be generalized to larger populations (i.e., other people, settings or conditions)

Answer 99

external validity, if the results of the study only apply to the population in the study itself then the external validity is said to be low

Question 100

refers to whether the DVs were truly influenced by the experimental IVs

Answer 100

internal validity

Question 101

refers to statistical procedures that use the important or underlying “fac- tors” in an attempt to summarize a lot of variables

Answer 101

factor analysis Hence, a test which measures a counselor’s ability may try to describe the
three most important variables (factors) that make an effective helper, although literally hundreds of factors may exist. Using factor analysis procedures, a brief test that measures the three major factors maybe able to predict who will be an effective counselor as accurately as 10 other tests that examine hundreds of variables or so-called factors.

Question 102

nonparametric statistical measure that tests whether a distribution differs significantly from an expected theoretical distribution

Answer 102

chi-square

Question 103

parsimony aka Occam’s Razor

Answer 103

interpret the results in the simplest manner.

Question 104

Test hint: The American Psychological Association’s Journal of Counsel- ing Psychology publishes more counseling research arti- cles than any other periodical in our field.

Question 105

is conducted to advance our knowledge of how theories, skills, and techniques can be used in terms of practical application.

Answer 105

applied research (also called action research or experience-near research)

Question 106

is conducted to advance our under- standing of theory

Answer 106

basic research

Question 107

Exam score booster: If your exam describes a true experiment—such as the biofeedback research described in the next several questions—except for the fact that the groups were not randomly assigned, then the new exams are calling this a causal comparative design. Expect to see this term on the exam. Data gleaned from the causal comparative ex-post facto or after the fact design can be analyzed with a test of significance (e.g., a t test or ANOVA) just like any true experiment.

Question 108

Remember that if you cannot randomly assign the subjects to the two groups then your exam will consider the research a quasi-experiment

Question 109

Hypothesis testing is most closely related to the work of

Answer 109

R. A. Fisher

Question 110

is a statement which can be tested regarding the relationship of the IV and the DV.

Answer 110

a hypothesis

Question 111

which is a study that analyzes the findings of numerous studies.

Answer 111

meta-analysis, hence, a study of reality therapy that looked at the results of 20 reality therapy studies would be a meta-analysis.

Question 112

In the social sciences the accepted probability level is usually

Answer 112

.05 or less.

Question 113

Type I and Type II errors are called _______ and _______ respectively.

Answer 113

alpha; beta A Type I (alpha error) occurs when a researcher rejects the null hypothesis when it is true; and a Type II error (beta error) occurs when you accept null when it is false. The memory device RA (as in “residence advisor”) works well here so you can remember the principle as well as the sequence. Let “R” signify “reject when true” and “A”—which comes after “R”—signify “accept when false.”

Question 114

Important: A positive correlation is not a stronger relationship than a negative one of the same numerical value. A correlation of −.70 is still indicative of a stronger relationship than a positive correlation of .60. The minus sign merely describes the fact that as one variable goes up the other goes down.

Question 115

Hot hint: I want you to commit to memory the fact that the 68-95-99.7 rule or empirical rule states that in a normal distribution 68% of the scores fall within plus/minus 1 standard devia- tion (SD) of the mean; 95% within 2 SDs of the mean; and 99.7% within 3 SDs of the mean. The verdict: almost all the scores will fall between 3 SDs of the mean

Question 116

A sociogram is to a counseling group as a scattergram is to

Answer 116

a correlation coefficient

Question 117

Z-scores are the same as standard deviations!

Answer 117

In fact, z- scores are often called standard scores.

Question 118

Experiential conjoint family therapy is closely related to the work of

Answer 118

Virginia Satir, she felt that the family could be healed via love

Question 119

is sometimes called the dean of experien- tial family therapy.

Answer 119

Carl Whitaker. Your exam may refer to Whitaker’s approach as experiential symbolic family therapy. was fond of saying that experience, not education, changes families. Psychotherapy of the absurd

Question 120

was a pioneer in the early history of family therapy

Answer 120

Alfred Adler

Question 121

Which therapist could best be described as atheoretical

Answer 121

Carl Whitaker. Whitaker asserted that theory is often used as an excuse to keep therapists emotionally distant from the family.

Question 122

Narrative therapy (NT), which highlights stories in counseling, is associated with the work of

Answer 122

Michael White, his wife Cheryl White, and David
Epston.
Narrative therapy fits in a new category of treatment known as postmodernism or constructivism. Constructivism or social constructivism asserts that a client constructs or invents the way he or she perceives the world. Clients come up with a story about their lives and they can reauthor these stories in therapy. Simply put: Reality is invented or constructed; it is not objective.

Question 123

Constructivism is not really a unified therapy based on a single individual but rather the theorists mentioned in this question as well as the trail blazers mentioned in the previous two questions. The theory stresses that therapy should be less hierarchical. A helper does not treat a client. Instead the client and the therapist have a conversation to work together in a collaborative effort.

Question 124

Which theorist would most likely assert that EQ is more important than IQ?

Answer 124

Daniel Goleman

Question 125

Behaviorism was outlined by which 4 people

Answer 125

John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, Joseph Wolpe, and B. F. Skinner. Initially the mind is a blank slate and the child learns to behave in a certain manner. This is basically a passive theory. The mind is like a computer that is fed information. This model relies on empiricism—John Locke’s view that knowledge is acquired by experience. All behavior is the result of learning.

Question 126

Jean Piaget’s Qualitative Four Stages of Cognitive Development (Genetic Epistemology)

Answer 126

Theory: Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years); Pre-operational (2 to 7 years); Concrete Operations (7 to 12 years); and Formal Operations (11/12 to 16).

Question 127

Erik Erikson’s Eight Psychosocial Stages

Answer 127

Trust versus mistrust (birth to age 11⁄2 years); autonomy versus shame and doubt (11⁄2 to 3 years); initiative versus guilt (3 to 6 years); industry versus inferiority (6 to 11 years): identity versus role confusion (12 to 18 years); intimacy versus isolation (18 to 35 years); generativity versus stagnation (35 to 60 years); and integrity versus despair (age 65 and beyond).

Question 128

Keagan’s Constructive Developmental Model

Answer 128

Keagan’s model emphasizes the impact of interpersonal interaction and our perception of reality

Question 129

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Three Levels of Moral Development

Answer 129

Each level has two stages: pre-conventional level—behavior governed by consequences; conventional level—a desire to conform to socially acceptable rules; postconventional level—self-accepted moral principles guide behavior.

Question 130

Freud’s Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Five Psychosexual Stages

Answer 130

Freud’s stages are: oral (birth to one year), anal (1 to 3 years), phallic/ Oedipal Electra complex (3 to 7 years), latency (3 to 5 until age 12), and genital (adolescence and adulthood).

Question 131

William Perry’s Three Stage Theory of Intellectual and Ethical Development in Adults/College Students

Answer 131

Dualism in which students view the truth as either right or wrong. Relativism is the notion that a perfect answer may not exist. There is a desire to know various opinions. Commitment to relativism—in this final stage the individual is willing to change his or opinion based on novel facts and new points of view.

Question 132

James W. Fowler’s Prestage Plus Six Stage Theory of Faith and Spiritual Development

Answer 132

Fowler conducted 350 structured interviews and drew on the work of Piaget, Kohlberg, and Erikson. Stage 0 undifferentiated (primal) faith (infancy, birth to 4 years); Stage 1 intuitive-projective faith (2 to 7 years, early childhood); mythic-literal faith (childhood and beyond); synthetic-conventional faith (adolescence and beyond) a stage of conformity); individuative reflective faith (young adult- hood and beyond); conjunctive faith (midthirties and beyond) open- ness to other points of view, paradox, and appreciation of symbols and metaphors; and universalizing faith (midlife and beyond) few reach this stage of enlightenment.

Question 133

The autoplastic–alloplastic dilemma

Answer 133

Autoplastic implies that the counselor helps the client change to cope with his or her environment. Alloplastic occurs when the counselor has the client try to change the environment.

Question 134

Androgynous/androgyny

Answer 134

the notion that psychologically healthy people possess both masculine and feminine characteristics.