THEORIES INFROMING POLICY DEVELOPMENT : BIOLOGICAL Flashcards
Outline EUGENICS as a form of policy development (Genetic)
Linked to genetic theories that criminality was transmitted by a ‘criminal gene’. Eugenics is the idea that the genetic quality of the human population can be improved through selective breeding.
Eugenicists feared that the human race was ‘degenerating’ because the poor were breeding at a faster rate than the rich and as a result, they were passing on supposedly inferior genes for low intelligence, insanity, poverty and criminality and were therefore seen as ‘genetically unfit’ and should be prevented from breeding (i.e. Sterilisation and abortion).
E.g. GERMANY: During the Nazi era in Germany, eugenics prompted the sterilisation of several hundred thousand people, including Jewish citizens who were believed to be untrustworthy and prone to financial criminality.
One strength of eugenics: Supporting research
Osborne and West compared the sons of criminal and non-criminal fathers. They found 12% of sons with non-criminal fathers had criminal convictions compared with 40% of sons with criminal fathers that also had criminal convictions.
This is a reliable finding and when assessing the impact of eugenics, there is evidence to show that criminality may be genetic and eugenicists argue that preventing this breeding could lessen crime rates in society.
One weakness of eugenics: Nature vs Nurture
Policy developments based on eugenics completely disregard the role of nurture on criminality by overemphasising the role of nature.
Sociological theorists like Cohen have argued that criminal behaviour is due to status frustration, where the poorest of society have blocked opportunities and therefore, they carry out crimes such as vandalism and fighting due to the frustration of their situation (i.e. nurture).
This shows that policy development based on eugenics completely disregard reasons for criminality such as inequality in society.
One weakness of eugenics: Ethics
Despite several countries including USA and Canada developing policies based on eugenics, it’s association with the Nazi Regime raised ethical concerns about the practices so that today few would consider these policies morally acceptable.
This shows that policy development based on eugenics should reside in the past due to the ethical concerns surrounding its practice.
Outline CAPITAL PUNISHMENT as a form of policy development (Genetic)
Linked to genetic theories that criminality was transmitted by a ‘criminal gene’. Capital punishment is strongly rooted in a biologically deterministic viewpoint that criminals are unable to change their behaviour. Although it was abolished in the UK in 1969, there are many countries which still maintain the death penalty today.
One strength of capital punishment: Supporting research
Professor Paul Rubin argues that recent research which is more statistically robust than older studies in the 1970s have consistently shown that capital punishment has a strong deterrent effect, with each execution deterring between 3 and 18 murders in and around that specific US State.
This shows that although the vast majority of research contradicts Rubin’s conclusions, there is still statistical evidence that capital punishment can in fact be a deterrent in the states that still practice this policy development.
One weakness of capital punishment: Statistics of murder rate between states with / without death penalty
The vast majority of research shows that the murder rate is lower in states that don’t have the death penalty than those that do.
The Death Penalty Information Centre found that in 2015, the murder rate was 25% higher in the death penalty states than non death penalty states.
This suggests that the death penalty is not a deterrent and there is contradicting research surrounding this policy development.
One weakness of capital punishment: Ethics
Since the mid-1970s, about one wrongfully convicted person on death row has been exonerated for every 8.3 who are executed, according to a ground-breaking analysis from the Death Penalty Information Centre.
This shows that policy development based on capital punishment is ethically unacceptable as innocent people have been put to death for crimes they did not commit.
Outline BIOCHEMICAL THEORIES as a form of policy development
This involves the manipulation of the biochemicals within the body which are thought to predispose criminal behaviour:
- Alcoholism is linked to violent crime –> ANTABUSE is a medication which treats alcoholism. It causes severe hangover symptoms if you consume event he smallest quantity of alcohol.
- SSRI’s –> increase the uptake of serotonin which improves mood and therefore reduces aggressive responses.
- Heroin links to theft and sex work crimes to acquire drugs –> METHADONE is a legal, medically controlled substitute for heroin.
- STILBESTROL –> a female sex hormone sometimes used in prisons to treat male sex offenders. It is a form of chemical castration which suppresses testosterone and reduces sex drive.
One strength of biochemical treatments: Supporting research
Virkkunen found that violent offenders had a lower than average serotonin turnover, and that they can be treated with foods that can provide nutrition to increase serotonin such as salmon and fresh tuna.
This shows that lower levels of the neurotransmitter called serotonin can increase violent offences and can be treated relatively cheaply through a diet.
One weakness of biochemical treatments: Treatments outside prison system
The provision of biochemical treatments in prisons is not reflected in similar support outside of the prison system which limits any of its effectiveness.
A report by the Ministry of Justice found that when in the CJS drug use is reduced, but only 30% remain in treatment upon release.
This shows that the effectiveness of biochemical treatments are only effective in the short term if there is no support for offenders outside of the prison system.
One weakness of biochemical treatments: Ethics
There are clearly power dynamics within the CJS that can coerce convicts into taking chemical treatments simply to get a lesser sentence / get out of the prison environment.
This shows that policy developments based on chemical treatments are ethically questionable as criminals may feel they have to commit to such therapies in order to secure any early release.
What theory led to the policy development of eugenics
Genetic theories
- twin and adoption studies
- XYY
What theory led to the policy development of capital punishment
Genetic theories
- twin and adoption studies
- XYY
What theory led to the policy development of capital punishment
Biochemical theories
- Neurotransmitters
