Theories and Methods Flashcards
Abductive reasoning (wikipedia)
(also called abduction, abductive inference, or retroduction) is a form of logical inference which starts with an observation or set of observations then seeks to find the simplest and most likely explanation for the observations. This process, unlike deductive reasoning, yields a plausible conclusion but does not positively verify it. Abductive conclusions are thus qualified as having a remnant of uncertainty or doubt, which is expressed in retreat terms such as “best available” or “most likely.” One can understand abductive reasoning as inference to the best explanation, although not all usages of the terms abduction and inference to the best explanation are exactly equivalent.
Abductive reasoning, or abduction (wikipedia)
allows inferring (a) as an explanation of (b). As a result of this inference, abduction allows the precondition (a) to be abduced from the consequence (b). Deductive reasoning and abductive reasoning thus differ in the direction in which a rule like “(a) entails (b)” is used for inference. As such, abduction is formally equivalent to the logical fallacy of affirming the consequent (or Post hoc ergo propter hoc) because of multiple possible explanations for (b). For example, in a billiard game, after glancing and seeing the eight ball moving towards us, we may abduce that the cue ball struck the eight ball. The strike of the cue ball would account for the movement of the eight ball. It serves as a hypothesis that explains our observation. Given the many possible explanations for the movement of the eight ball, our abduction does not leave us certain that the cue ball in fact struck the eight ball, but our abduction, still useful, can serve to orient us in our surroundings. Despite many possible explanations for any physical process that we observe, we tend to abduce a single explanation (or a few explanations) for this process in the expectation that we can better orient ourselves in our surroundings and disregard some possibilities. Properly used, abductive reasoning can be a useful source of priors in Bayesian statistics.
Academic tolerance
Sociologist have to be continually vigilant that they do not assume that their favoured perspective gives them unique insights into an issue. If so, they would be in danger of failing to appreciate the insights of others.
Audience analysis
examining how audiences respond to and interpret documentary material.
Beliefs
ideas that are accepted as true, whether or not they are supported by evidence.
Bias
error or distortion in the data arising from the way evidence is collected or interpreted.
Capitalism
an economic system based on the pursuit of private profit. Capitalism’s defining relationship is between employer and employee (owner and non-owner).
Case study
a study of a particular instance of something.
Case study
in-depth, qualitative, study of a particular group or ‘case’.
Causation
the idea that when one action occurs, another always follows because the latter is caused by the former.
Closed questions
questions in which the range of responses is fixed by the researcher.
Closed system
a system in which all the variables can be controlled.
Coded
answers are classified into various categories.
Collective conscience
the expression of a society’s ‘collective will’, which bears down on individuals, shaping their beliefs and behavioural choices.
Comparative analysis
a comparison of different cultures, cases and situations to understand their similarities and differences.
Comparative analysis
collecting data on one group or society and then comparing them with others to identify conditions that may be causing social events.
Content analysis
research method used for the systematic analysis of media texts and communications.
Control group
in an experiment, the characteristics of the control group exactly match those of the experimental group. While the behaviour of the experimental group is manipulated in some way, no attempt is made to similarly manipulate the control group. This allows comparisons to be made between the control and experimental group.
Control group
in experiments, a group for which the researcher does not change the variables, so that it can be compared with groups for whom variables have been changed.
Correlation
a statistical link between two or more variables or factors.
Correlation
a statistical relationship between two or more variables that expresses a level of probability. A high (positive) correlation suggests the strong probability of a relationship; a low (negative) correlation suggests the probability of little or no relationship.
Correlations
when research shows a relationship or connection between two or more variables.
Covert observation
observation-based research in which the observer’s true identity and the purpose of their study are hidden from participants.
Covert observation
those being studied are unaware they are part of a research project.
Critical theory
Critical theorists attempt to analyse society and then try to change it for the better, rather than simply to understand and explain societal mechanisms. Critical theory demonstrated a liberal, open-minded approach to sociology, which was sceptical concerning a positivist approach to social science.
Cross-sectional survey
research method focused on identifying groups that share broad similarities, such as level of education, and measuring differences in a single variable; whether, for example, people with a high level of education have higher rates of suicide than those with a lower level of education.
Cultural capital
consists of the range of skills, knowledge and attributes that help people to succeed in life. This may include academic qualifications and skills, experience of foreign travel, and an understanding of the arts.
Culture
the beliefs of a society and their symbolic representation in creative activities. Sometimes used in a broader way to mean way of life (Fulcher and Scott, 2011).
Culture
the ‘way of life’ of a particular group. This is normally defined in terms of material culture, or the objects people produce, and non-material culture, or the ideas and beliefs they create.
Data
information that a researcher draws on and/or generates during a study.
Deductive approach
starting with a theory and using evidence to test that theory.
Deductive reasoning (wikipedia)
“also deductive logic, is the process of deduction from one or more statements (premises) to reach a logically certain conclusion. Deductive reasoning goes in the same direction as that of the conditionals, and links premises with conclusions. If all premises are true, the terms are clear, and the rules of deductive logic are followed, then the conclusion reached is necessarily true. Deductive reasoning (““top-down logic””) contrasts with inductive reasoning (““bottom-up logic””) in the following way; in deductive reasoning, a conclusion is reached reductively by applying general rules which hold over the entirety of a closed domain of discourse, narrowing the range under consideration until only the conclusion(s) is left. In inductive reasoning, the conclusion is reached by generalizing or extrapolating from specific cases to general rules, i.e., there is epistemic uncertainty. An example of an argument using deductive reasoning:
- All men are mortal. (First premise)
- Socrates is a man. (Second premise)
- Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (Conclusion)”
Deductive reasoning, or deduction (wikipedia)
allows deriving (b) from (a) only where (b) is a formal logical consequence of (a). In other words, deduction derives the consequences of the assumed. Given the truth of the assumptions, a valid deduction guarantees the truth of the conclusion. For example, given that “Wikis can be edited by anyone” (a1) and “Wikipedia is a wiki” (a2), it follows that “Wikipedia can be edited by anyone” (b).
Demand characteristics
Pending
Determinism
the claim that human behaviour is shaped by forces beyond the immediate control of individuals, such as social structures or ‘society’.
Deterministic (wikipedia)
In mathematics, computer science and physics, a deterministic system is a system in which no randomness is involved in the development of future states of the system. A deterministic model will thus always produce the same output from a given starting condition or initial state.
Digital content
information such as social media that is distributed via the internet.
Economic determinism
idea that the form taken by economic relationships (such as master and serf in feudal society or employer and employee in capitalist society) is the most significant relationship in any society. This determines the form taken by all other political and cultural relationships.
Epistemology (wikipedia)
is the study of the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief. Much debate in epistemology centers on four areas: (1) the philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to such concepts as truth, belief, and justification, (2) various problems of skepticism, (3) the sources and scope of knowledge and justified belief, and (4) the criteria for knowledge and justification. Epistemology addresses such questions as: “What makes justified beliefs justified?”, “What does it mean to say that we know something?”, and fundamentally “How do we know that we know?” In mathematics, it is known that 2 + 2 = 4, but there is also knowing how to add two numbers, and knowing a person (e.g., knowing other persons, or knowing oneself), place (e.g., one’s hometown), thing (e.g., cars), or activity (e.g., addition). Some philosophers think there is an important distinction between “knowing that” (know a concept), “knowing how” (understand an operation), and “acquaintance-knowledge” (know by relation), with epistemology being primarily concerned with the first of these. Whether someone’s belief is true is not a prerequisite for (its) belief. On the other hand, if something is actually known, then it categorically cannot be false. For example, if a person believes that a bridge is safe enough to support her, and attempts to cross it, but the bridge then collapses under her weight, it could be said that she believed that the bridge was safe but that her belief was mistaken. It would not be accurate to say that she knew that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. By contrast, if the bridge actually supported her weight, then the person might say that she had believed the bridge was safe, whereas now, after proving it to herself (by crossing it), she knows it was safe.
Ethical
relating to moral principles that state what is right and wrong.
Ethical guidelines
guidance provided by social science organisations and universities on how to conduct morally acceptable research, covering issues such as informed consent and confidentiality.
Ethical issue
a concern with morals and how to conduct morally acceptable research.
Ethical issues
‘ethics’ refers to the morality of doing something. Ethical questions relating to sociological research involve beliefs about what a researcher should or should not do before, during and after their research.
Ethnography
the study of the way of life of a group of people in order to understand their world from their perspective.
Ethnography
the in-depth study of a group or culture, usually involving participant observation and often other methods as well.
Etymology
is the study of the history of words. By extension, the phrase “the etymology of [some word]” means the origin of the particular word. For place names, there is a specific term, toponymy.
Experiment
a research method which follows a set procedure to test a hypothesis. Laboratory experiments take place in a closed environment where conditions can be precisely monitored and controlled. Field experiments take place in the ‘real world’.
Experimental effect
any unintended impact of the experiment on participant.
Experimental group
the subjects of an experiment. The researcher changes different variables to test their effect on behaviour. There is often also a control group, for whom the variable is not changed. This allows comparisons to be made between the control and experimental groups.
Experimenter bias
the unintended effect of the experimenter on a participant.
Falsification
looking for evidence to disprove a theory.
Falsification
the principle that scientific theories should be framed in such a way that they can be disproved (falsified).
Feminism
a broad range of approaches dealing with male-female relationships from the perspective of the latter.
Feminist methodology
a methodology designed to reflect feminist ideals and values.
Field experiment
an experiment conducted in everyday social settings.
Field experiment
experiments that take place in the ‘real world’; beyond the closed, controlled environment of the laboratory.
Focus group
a group discussion about one particular theme or topic guided by a moderator; it explores how participants interact and respond to each other’s view.
Forces of production
in Marxist theory, this refers to how everything - from raw materials, through labour power to machinery - is organised in the productive process.
Formal content analysis
counting how often particular words, phrases and images occur.
Free will
the argument that because humans have consciousness they can make free and informed choices about their actions.
Functionalist theory
major, if dated sociological theory that argues that consensus is the overriding principle on which societies are based. Focus is on institutional relationships and the functions they perform for the individual and society.
Functions, manifest and latent
manifest functions are the intended consequences of an action; latent functions are the hidden or sometimes unintended consequences of that same action.
Gatekeeper
the person or group in a particular setting such as a school with responsibility for allowing (or otherwise) a research in that site.
Gender
the social characteristics different societies assign to individuals based on understanding of their biological or social differences. Where biological sex refers to ideas like male and female, gender refers to ideas about masculinity and feminity.
Generalisation
a statement based on a relatively small group which is then applied to a larger group.
Generalise
when the findings of research on a sample can be said to apply to a larger population.
Globalisation
various processes - economic, political and cultural - that occur on a worldwide basis.
Grounded theory
starting from ‘concrete data’ and building upwards to theory.
Group interview
a type of interview covering a range of themes or topics; the researcher questions and collect data from several people at once.
Group interviews
also called focus groups, these involve respondents discussing a topic as a group rather than individually.
Hawthorne (or observer) effect
changes in people’s behaviour that result from their knowledge of being observed.
Hawthorne effect
changes in participants’ behaviour resulting from an awareness that they are taking part in an experiment.
Historical documents
documents from the past.
Hypothesis
- testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
- proposed explanation which is used as a starting point for further investigation.
- statement put forward by the researcher which is then tested to see whether it is correct.
- statement or question that can be systematically tested.
Hypothetico-deductive method
positivist research design based on the development and systematic testing of hypotheses.
Ideology
a system of related beliefs.
Inductive approach
starting with evidence and developing a theory from that evidence.
Inductive reasoning (wikipedia)
is a method of reasoning in which the premises are viewed as supplying some evidence for the truth of the conclusion; this is in contrast to deductive reasoning. While the conclusion of a deductive argument is certain, the truth of the conclusion of an inductive argument may be probable, based upon the evidence given. For example, a generalization (more accurately, an inductive generalization) proceeds from a premise about a sample to a conclusion about the population.
The proportion Q of the sample has attribute A.
Therefore: The proportion Q of the population has attribute A.
Inductive reasoning or induction (wikipedia)
allows inferring (b) from (a), where (b) does not follow necessarily from (a). (a) might give us very good reason to accept (b), but it does not ensure (b). For example, if all swans that we have observed so far are white, we may induce that the possibility that all swans are white is reasonable. We have good reason to believe the conclusion from the premise, but the truth of the conclusion is not guaranteed. (Indeed, it turns out that some swans are black.)
Informed consent
the participant only agrees to participate in the research once the sociologist has explained fully what the research is about and why it is being undertaken.
Interpretivism
- an approach that explores people’s lived experiences and the meaning they attach to their actions. It favours qualitative data.
- the approach within sociology which advocates methods that enable the sociologist to understand the meanings that people attach to their actions.
- methodology based on the principle that social behaviour can only be understood subjectively, by understanding how people interpret situations and, by so doing, give them meaning. Participant observation is a classic interpretivist method.
Interview bias
the effect of the interview situation itself on a participant’s responses.
Interviewer bias
the effect of the interviewer on a research participant’s answers.
Key informant
a member of the group being studied who provides important information and often sponsors the researcher.
Laboratory experiment
an experiment conducted in a specially designed setting.
Laboratory experiment
experiment that takes place in a closed environment where conditions can be precisely monitored and controlled.
Liberal feminism
type of feminism that promotes gender equality.
Life history
a case study of an individual’s life.
Longitudinal study
- a study of the same group of people over time.
- a form of comparative analysis that involves tracking changes among a representative sample over time.
- a form of comparative analysis that involves tracking changes among a representative sample over time.
Macrosociology
large-scale sociological approach where the focus is on social structures and institutions.
Marxist feminists
type of feminism that focused on challenging capitalism as a route to freeing women from oppression and inequality.
Marxist theory
philosophy or social theory based on the ideas of Karl Marx.
Mechanical solidarity
type of solidarity characteristics of pre-industrial/tribal societies, in which people are bound together by who they are rather than what they do.
Meronomy (wikipedia)
or partonomy is a type of hierarchy that deals with part–whole relationships, in contrast to a taxonomy whose categorisation is based on discrete sets. Accordingly, the unit of meronomical classification is meron, while the unit of taxonomical classification is taxon. The study of meronomy is known as mereology, and in linguistics a meronym is the name given to a constituent part of, the substance of, or a member of something.
“X” is a meronym of “Y” if an X is a part of a Y.
Meta-narratives
grand stories which claim to explain things.
Methodological pluralism
the use of a plurality or range of research methods, including both quantitative and qualitative methods.
Methodological pluralism
combining research methodologies, such as Positivism and Interpretivism, in ways that allow each to complement the other to improve research reliability and validity.
Methodology
a theory about how research should proceed.
Mixed-methods approaches
using more than one method in a research project, often combining both qualitative and quantitative techniques.
Moderator
an interviewer who guides focus group discussions.
Modern industrial society
type of society characterised by particular forms of political, economic (mass production, manufacturing) and cultural (science, reason) beliefs and practices.
Non-directive interviewing
an interviewing technique that seeks to avoid leading participants to answer in particular ways.
Non-participant observation
an observation-based study in which the researcher does not join those they are studying.
Non-participant observation
when the researcher observes behaviour without participating in that behaviour.
Normal science
science which operates within an established paradigm.
Norms
socially accepted ‘correct’ or ‘proper’ forms of behaviour. Norms either prescribe given types of behaviour or forbid them (Bilton et al., 2002).
Norms
rules of behaviour (Fulcher and Scott, 2011).
Objectivity
a value-free, impartial, unbiased view.
Objectivity
freedom from personal or institutional bias.
Observation schedule
instructions which tell the observer what to look for and how to record it.
Observer effect
this occurs in an observation-based study when the observer’s known presence changes the behaviour of the people being studied.
Official statistics
- numerical data produced by government departments and agencies.
- government-generated secondary source of data on areas such as crime, marriage and employment.
Ontology (wikipedia)
“is the philosophical study of being. More broadly, it studies concepts that directly relate to being, in particular becoming, existence, reality, as well as the basic categories of being and their relations. Traditionally listed as a part of the major branch of philosophy known as metaphysics, ontology often deals with questions concerning what entities exist or may be said to exist and how such entities may be grouped, related within a hierarchy, and subdivided according to similarities and differences. Some philosophers, notably in the traditions of the Platonic school, contend that all nouns (including abstract nouns) refer to existent entities. Other philosophers contend that nouns do not always name entities, but that some provide a kind of shorthand for reference to a collection either of objects or of events. In this latter view, mind, instead of referring to an entity, refers to a collection of mental events experienced by a person; society refers to a collection of persons with some shared characteristics, and geometry refers to a collection of specific kinds of intellectual activities. Between these poles of realism and nominalism stand a variety of other positions.
Some fundamental questions of ontology include:
““What can be said to exist?””
““What is a thing?””
““Into what categories, if any, can we sort existing things?””
““What are the meanings of being?””
““What are the various modes of being of entities?”””
Open system
a system in which it is impossible to control all the variables.
Open-ended/open questions
questions which allow the respondent to answer in their own words.
Operationalisation
- converting a concept, such as social class or cultural capital, into something that can be researched and measured.
- the process through which a theoretical concept is converted into a more concrete and measurable indicator that can be used in empirical investigations.
Operationalise
translate abstract concepts into a form that can be measured.
Organic solidarity
type of solidarity characteristics of industrial societies, in which people are bound together by what they do.
Overt observation
- open research in which the observer’s true identity and the purpose of their research are revealed to participants.
- participant observation in which those being studied are aware they are being researched.
Overt participant observation
when those being studied are aware they are being researched. Contrasted with covert participant observation, which is when those being studied are unaware that they are part of a research project.
Paradigm
a framework of concepts and theories which states how the natural world operates.
Participant observation
- a qualitative methods in which the researcher gathers data by joining a group and taking part in its activities.
- research method that involves the researcher participating, openly or secretly, in the behaviour they are studying.
- research method that involves the researcher participating, openly (overtly) or secretly (covertly), in the behaviour they are studying.
Personal documents
- secondary source of data covering areas such as personal letters, diaries, oral (verbal) histories, websites, social networking sites and photographs.
- eg, letters, diaries, notes and photographs.
Pilot study
- a small-scale study to check the suitability of the methods to be used in the main study.
- mini version’ of a full scale study designed to test its feasibility.
Population
the group under study from which a sample is selected.
Positivism
- an approach based partly on the methods used in the natural sciences. It favours quantitative data.
- the approach within sociology which promotes (advocates) scientific methods to discover facts about the social world.
- a methodology based on the principle that it is possible and desirable to study the social world in broadly the same way that natural scientists study the natural world.
Postmodernism
microsociological perspective that rejects the modernist claim that the social world can be understood rationally and empirically. Focus is on understanding how people construct personal narratives (stories), trough which make sense of the world.
Primary data
- new information produced by the researcher during the research process.
- information collected personally by a researcher.
Qualitative data
- non-numeric data that expresses the quality of a relationship.
- all data (such as quotations from interview participants) that is not in numerical form.
Quantitative data
- information in the form of statistics.
* information expressed numerically that captures the ‘who, what, when and where’ of behaviour.
Questionnaire
research method consisting of a list of written questions. Closed-ended questions provide possible answers from which the respondent can choose, while open-ended questions mean the respondent may answer in their own words.
Quota sampling
a type of stratified sampling in which selection from the strata is not random.
Radical feminism
form of feminism that sees female oppression in terms of patriarchal relationships.
Random sampling
a sampling technique in which every member of the sampling frame has a known chance of being selected.
Rapport
a friendly, trusting and understanding relationship.
Realist view
an approach which assumes that events in both the natural and social worlds are produced by underlying structures and mechanisms.
Reflexivity
in the context of research, reflecting on yourself, looking back at your research, and examining how your values and background might have influenced your findings.
Relations of production
in Marxist theory, the social relationships into which people MUST enter in order to survive, to produce and reproduce their means of life. In capitalist society, the main relations of production involve owners and non-owners.
Relativism
the idea that all knowledge is relative to time, place, culture and the individual.
Reliability
data are reliable when different researchers using the same methods obtain the same results.
Reliability
this generally refers to the effectiveness of the research approach in generating consistent data. A researcher can check the reliability of their research by repeating (replicating) the research to see if they get the same, or very similar, results.
Reliable (scientific method)
refers to the idea that it is possible to check the accuracy of a piece of research by repeating (replicating) it to see if we get the same, or very similar, results.
Replication
repeating an experiment or research study under the same conditions.
Representative sample
a subgroup that is typical of its population.
Representativeness
extent to which the characteristics of a sample population accurately reflect those of the target population.
Research ethics committees
bodies in universities that scrutinise proposals.
Research funding
the source of funding for academic research.
Research funding
Pending
Research methods
techniques for collecting data such as interviews or questionnaires.
Research participants
the people who researchers study.
Researcher bias
condition in which the presence or behaviour of the researcher introduces uncontrolled variables into the research, making it unreliable or invalid.
Researcher effect
also called the interviewer effect, this refers to how the relationship between researcher and respondent may bias responses and lead to invalid data.
Respondent
a person who is the subject of a research process or who respond to the research.
Response rate
the percentage of the sample that participates in the research.
Roles
the normative expectations attached to particular social positions. These define the ways in which people are expected to behave (Fulcher and Scott, 2011).
Sample
a subgroup of research participants from the larger group to be studied.
Sample attrition
the reduction in size of the original sample over time.
Sampling and sampling techniques
a sample involves a small number of subjects drawn from a much larger (target) population. Sociologists use a variety of random and non-random sampling techniques.
Sampling error
anything in the research design that causes a sample intended to be representative of a target population to become unrepresentative; a self-selected sample, for example, is a form of sampling error.
Sampling frame
a list of members of the research population.
Sampling technique
a procedure (such as snowball or stratified random sampling) used to obtain a sample.
Sampling unit
a member of the research population such as a household or a student.
Scientific method
The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century. It involves careful observation, applying rigorous skepticism about what is observed, given that cognitive assumptions can distort how one interprets the observation. It involves formulating hypotheses, via induction, based on such observations; experimental and measurement-based testing of deductions drawn from the hypotheses; and refinement (or elimination) of the hypotheses based on the experimental findings. These are principles of the scientific method, as distinguished from a definitive series of steps applicable to all scientific enterprises. Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, they are frequently the same from one to another. The process of the scientific method involves making conjectures (hypotheses), deriving predictions from them as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions. A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. The hypothesis might be very specific, or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments or studies. A scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment or observation that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested
Scientific method
a way of generating knowledge about the world through objective, systematic and controlled research. The hypothetico-deductive model is an example of a scientific method.
Scientific revolution
the overthrow of an established paradigm by a new paradigm.
Secondary data
- data that already exists; data not personally generated by the researcher.
- pre-existing information used by the researcher.
Self-completion questionnaire
a questionnaire that the respondent fills in.
Semiology
- the analysis of signs.
- the study of cultural meanings embedded in media forms, often used to explore and interpret ‘hidden meanings’ embedded within texts.
Semiotic analysis
the study of signs and symbols and how they combine to create meaning.
Semi-structured interview
similar to a structure interview, but the interviewer probes with additional questions.
Semi-structured interview
research method in which a respondent is encouraged to talk at length about a particular subject. Also called focused interviews because the topic is decided by the researcher and is the focus of their questions.
Simple random sampling
a technique in which all members of the sampling frame have an equal chance of being selected.
Snowball sampling
a technique in which members of the sample select each other.
Social change
on a macro level, social change involves a major shift in the political, economic or cultural order (such as the change from feudalism to capitalism of pre-modern to modern society). On a micro level it can refer to everyday changes in political, economic or cultural relationships.
Social constructionism
is the theory that our understanding of the world around us is principally created through interactions between people, and the sharing of knowledge and viewpoints.
Social control
the various mechanisms, such as rewards and punishments, that individuals and societies use to maintain order.
Social desirability effect
bias resulting from a research participant’s desire to reflect in their responses what is generally seen as the right way to behave.
Social facts
the institutions, norms and values of society.
Social facts
consist of manner of acting, thinking and feeling external to the individual, which are invested with a coercive power by virtue of which they exercise control over him.
Social order
the behavioural patterns and regularities established by societies that make social action possible.
Social policy
a set of ideas and actions pursued by governments to meet a particular social objective. A housing policy, for example, sets out the various criteria required to solve a perceived social problem.
Social problem
behaviour seen to ‘case public friction and/or private misery’, usually involving some form of ‘public outcry or call for action’ (Stanley, 2004). A social problem is always defined from the perspective of the powerful.
Social survey
systematic collection of the same type of data from a fairly large number of people.
Society
most commonly used to refer to the totality of social relationships within a national population, as in British society, but often used loosely to refer to any social unit, from local group to ‘global society’. (Fulcher and Scott, 2011).
Society
is a cluster, or system, of institutionalised modes of conduct. (Giddens, 1986).
Sociology
is the analysis of the social, which can be treated at any level (e.g. dyadic interaction, social groups. Large organisations or whole societies).
Sociology
is the scientific study of human social life, groups, and societies (Giddens, 1986).
Sociology
is a social science, having its main focus the study of the social institutions brought into being by the industrial transformations of the past two or three centuries (Giddens, 1986).
Sociology
as reasoned and rigorous study of social life, is the study of how membership of social groups, from families through schools to workplaces, influences people’s behaviour.
Stratified random sampling
a technique in which the population is divided into strata and the sample is randomly drawn from each stratum. It attempts to reflect particular characteristics, such as age and gender, of the population.
Structuralist
form of sociology, such as functionalism and Marxism, that focused on analysing society in terms of its institutional relationships and their effect on individual beliefs and behaviours.
Structured interview
a questionnaire which the interviewer read outs and fills in.
Structured interview
set of standard questions asked by the researcher of the respondent. It is similar to a questionnaire, but is delivered by the researcher rather than completed by a respondent.
Structured/systematic observation
an observation-based study which usually employs an observation schedule to generate quantitative data.
Subjectivity
a personal view based on an individual’s values and beliefs.
Survey (social survey)
Pending
Taxonomy
is the practice and science of classification. The word is also used as a count noun: a taxonomy, or taxonomic scheme, is a particular classification. Originally, taxonomy referred only to the classification of organisms or a particular classification of organisms. In a wider, more general sense, it may refer to a classification of things or concepts, as well as to the principles underlying such a classification. Taxonomy is different from meronomy, which is dealing with the classification of parts of a whole. Many taxonomies have a hierarchical structure, but this is not a requirement. Taxonomy uses taxonomic units, known as “taxa” (singular “taxon”).
Textual analysis
examining how the words and phrases chosen encourage a particular reading of a document.
Thematic analysis
interpreting the meanings, motives and ideologies that underlie documents.
Totalitarism
A totalitarian society is one in which the power elite controls all aspects of the belief system within the society.
Traditional society
type of society in which behaviour is characterised by and based on long-standing customs, habits and traditions.
Trend
the general direction in which statistics on something (such as the divorce rate) change or move over time.
Triangulation
- a way of cross-checking the validity of research findings by, for example, using mixed methods.
- the use of two or more research methods where the weaknesses of one method, such as a quantitative interview, can be balanced (offset) by the strengths of another, such as qualitative participant observation, to improve overall research reliability and validity.
Unstructured interview
an interview with few, if any, pre-set questions, though *researchers usually have certain topics they wish to cover.
*free-form interview method where the objective is to get the respondent to talk, without prompting or interruption, about whatever they feel is important about a topic.
Unstructured observation
an observation-based study that produces a detailed description of behaviour as seen by the researcher.
Valid (scientific method)
data is only useful if it actually describes what it claim to measure or describe. The validity of statistics may be limited by the mean by which it was collected (reported and unreported facts).
Validity
- data are valid if they represent a true or accurate measurement.
- the extent to which a research method describes or measures what it claims to describe or measure.
Value consensus
agreement about the things a society, and by extension individuals within that society, thinks are important.
Value judgements
judgements based solely on the values of those making a decision; value judgements are, by definition, subjective.
Value pluralism
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The word ‘pluralism’ generally refers to the view that there are many of the things in question (concepts, scientific world views, discourses, viewpoints etc.) The issues arising from there being many differ widely from subject area to subject area. This entry is concerned with moral pluralism—the view that there are many different moral values. Political Liberalism need not be based on value pluralism: a defence of toleration of different value systems need not rely on the claim that there are plural moral values. We shall leave political pluralism aside for the purposes of this entry, and concentrate on moral value pluralism. Moral value pluralism should be distinguished from political pluralism. Political pluralism, which, like moral value pluralism, is often referred to as ‘value pluralism’, is a view associated with political liberalism. Political pluralism is concerned with the question of what sort of restrictions governments can put on people’s freedom to act according to their values. It is also worth emphasising that moral value pluralism does not entail relativism. The idea is not that all values or value systems are equally true. John Stuart Mill suggested that there are higher and lower pleasures (Mill, 2002, p. 241), the idea being that the value of higher and lower pleasures is measured on different scales. In other words, there are discontinuities in the measurement of value. The distinction between higher and lower pleasures allows us to say that no amount of lower pleasures can outweigh some amount of higher pleasures. As Mill puts it, it is better to be an unhappy human being than a happy pig.
Value-free
the ability of researchers to prevent their own values (such as personal, political or religious values) from influencing their research.
Value-freedom
general principle that the conduct and findings of the research process should not be influenced by the values of the researcher.
Values
ideals and beliefs regarded as important by a society or social group (Bilton et al., 2002).
Values
cultural beliefs and ideas that have a normative or moral character, specifying what is good and what ought or should happen in particular societies (Fulcher and Scott, 2011).
Variables
factors that affect behaviour. Variables can vary, for example, temperature can increase or decrease.
Variables
factors that can be changed (manipulated) by the researcher to understand their effect on behaviour.
Verstehen
as used by Weber, an approach for interpreting the meanings and motives that direct individual action. It involves understanding research participants’ situations as they themselves understand them.
Verstehen
research strategy central to participant observation, which takes advantage of the researcher’s ability to see things from the subject’s viewpoint (empathy).
Victim surveys
surveys that ask respondents whether they have been victims of particular crimes during a specified period and, if so, whether they reported them to the police.
Volunteer sample
a sample in which members of the sample are self-selected.
Weberian theory
a sociological perspective, deriving from the work of Max Weber, focused on understanding and explaining social action. Contemporary forms of Weberian sociology are usually expressed as interactionist sociology.
