Theories and Methods Flashcards
Abductive reasoning (wikipedia)
(also called abduction, abductive inference, or retroduction) is a form of logical inference which starts with an observation or set of observations then seeks to find the simplest and most likely explanation for the observations. This process, unlike deductive reasoning, yields a plausible conclusion but does not positively verify it. Abductive conclusions are thus qualified as having a remnant of uncertainty or doubt, which is expressed in retreat terms such as “best available” or “most likely.” One can understand abductive reasoning as inference to the best explanation, although not all usages of the terms abduction and inference to the best explanation are exactly equivalent.
Abductive reasoning, or abduction (wikipedia)
allows inferring (a) as an explanation of (b). As a result of this inference, abduction allows the precondition (a) to be abduced from the consequence (b). Deductive reasoning and abductive reasoning thus differ in the direction in which a rule like “(a) entails (b)” is used for inference. As such, abduction is formally equivalent to the logical fallacy of affirming the consequent (or Post hoc ergo propter hoc) because of multiple possible explanations for (b). For example, in a billiard game, after glancing and seeing the eight ball moving towards us, we may abduce that the cue ball struck the eight ball. The strike of the cue ball would account for the movement of the eight ball. It serves as a hypothesis that explains our observation. Given the many possible explanations for the movement of the eight ball, our abduction does not leave us certain that the cue ball in fact struck the eight ball, but our abduction, still useful, can serve to orient us in our surroundings. Despite many possible explanations for any physical process that we observe, we tend to abduce a single explanation (or a few explanations) for this process in the expectation that we can better orient ourselves in our surroundings and disregard some possibilities. Properly used, abductive reasoning can be a useful source of priors in Bayesian statistics.
Academic tolerance
Sociologist have to be continually vigilant that they do not assume that their favoured perspective gives them unique insights into an issue. If so, they would be in danger of failing to appreciate the insights of others.
Audience analysis
examining how audiences respond to and interpret documentary material.
Beliefs
ideas that are accepted as true, whether or not they are supported by evidence.
Bias
error or distortion in the data arising from the way evidence is collected or interpreted.
Capitalism
an economic system based on the pursuit of private profit. Capitalism’s defining relationship is between employer and employee (owner and non-owner).
Case study
a study of a particular instance of something.
Case study
in-depth, qualitative, study of a particular group or ‘case’.
Causation
the idea that when one action occurs, another always follows because the latter is caused by the former.
Closed questions
questions in which the range of responses is fixed by the researcher.
Closed system
a system in which all the variables can be controlled.
Coded
answers are classified into various categories.
Collective conscience
the expression of a society’s ‘collective will’, which bears down on individuals, shaping their beliefs and behavioural choices.
Comparative analysis
a comparison of different cultures, cases and situations to understand their similarities and differences.
Comparative analysis
collecting data on one group or society and then comparing them with others to identify conditions that may be causing social events.
Content analysis
research method used for the systematic analysis of media texts and communications.
Control group
in an experiment, the characteristics of the control group exactly match those of the experimental group. While the behaviour of the experimental group is manipulated in some way, no attempt is made to similarly manipulate the control group. This allows comparisons to be made between the control and experimental group.
Control group
in experiments, a group for which the researcher does not change the variables, so that it can be compared with groups for whom variables have been changed.
Correlation
a statistical link between two or more variables or factors.
Correlation
a statistical relationship between two or more variables that expresses a level of probability. A high (positive) correlation suggests the strong probability of a relationship; a low (negative) correlation suggests the probability of little or no relationship.
Correlations
when research shows a relationship or connection between two or more variables.
Covert observation
observation-based research in which the observer’s true identity and the purpose of their study are hidden from participants.
Covert observation
those being studied are unaware they are part of a research project.