Theories and Methods

Question 1

Abductive reasoning (wikipedia)

Answer 1

(also called abduction, abductive inference, or retroduction) is a form of logical inference which starts with an observation or set of observations then seeks to find the simplest and most likely explanation for the observations. This process, unlike deductive reasoning, yields a plausible conclusion but does not positively verify it. Abductive conclusions are thus qualified as having a remnant of uncertainty or doubt, which is expressed in retreat terms such as “best available” or “most likely.” One can understand abductive reasoning as inference to the best explanation, although not all usages of the terms abduction and inference to the best explanation are exactly equivalent.

Question 2

Abductive reasoning, or abduction (wikipedia)

Answer 2

allows inferring (a) as an explanation of (b). As a result of this inference, abduction allows the precondition (a) to be abduced from the consequence (b). Deductive reasoning and abductive reasoning thus differ in the direction in which a rule like “(a) entails (b)” is used for inference. As such, abduction is formally equivalent to the logical fallacy of affirming the consequent (or Post hoc ergo propter hoc) because of multiple possible explanations for (b). For example, in a billiard game, after glancing and seeing the eight ball moving towards us, we may abduce that the cue ball struck the eight ball. The strike of the cue ball would account for the movement of the eight ball. It serves as a hypothesis that explains our observation. Given the many possible explanations for the movement of the eight ball, our abduction does not leave us certain that the cue ball in fact struck the eight ball, but our abduction, still useful, can serve to orient us in our surroundings. Despite many possible explanations for any physical process that we observe, we tend to abduce a single explanation (or a few explanations) for this process in the expectation that we can better orient ourselves in our surroundings and disregard some possibilities. Properly used, abductive reasoning can be a useful source of priors in Bayesian statistics.

Question 3

Academic tolerance

Answer 3

Sociologist have to be continually vigilant that they do not assume that their favoured perspective gives them unique insights into an issue. If so, they would be in danger of failing to appreciate the insights of others.

Question 4

Audience analysis

Answer 4

examining how audiences respond to and interpret documentary material.

Question 5

Beliefs

Answer 5

ideas that are accepted as true, whether or not they are supported by evidence.

Question 6

Bias

Answer 6

error or distortion in the data arising from the way evidence is collected or interpreted.

Question 7

Capitalism

Answer 7

an economic system based on the pursuit of private profit. Capitalism’s defining relationship is between employer and employee (owner and non-owner).

Question 8

Case study

Answer 8

a study of a particular instance of something.

Question 9

Case study

Answer 9

in-depth, qualitative, study of a particular group or ‘case’.

Question 10

Causation

Answer 10

the idea that when one action occurs, another always follows because the latter is caused by the former.

Question 11

Closed questions

Answer 11

questions in which the range of responses is fixed by the researcher.

Question 12

Closed system

Answer 12

a system in which all the variables can be controlled.

Question 13

Coded

Answer 13

answers are classified into various categories.

Question 14

Collective conscience

Answer 14

the expression of a society’s ‘collective will’, which bears down on individuals, shaping their beliefs and behavioural choices.

Question 15

Comparative analysis

Answer 15

a comparison of different cultures, cases and situations to understand their similarities and differences.

Question 16

Comparative analysis

Answer 16

collecting data on one group or society and then comparing them with others to identify conditions that may be causing social events.

Question 17

Content analysis

Answer 17

research method used for the systematic analysis of media texts and communications.

Question 18

Control group

Answer 18

in an experiment, the characteristics of the control group exactly match those of the experimental group. While the behaviour of the experimental group is manipulated in some way, no attempt is made to similarly manipulate the control group. This allows comparisons to be made between the control and experimental group.

Question 19

Control group

Answer 19

in experiments, a group for which the researcher does not change the variables, so that it can be compared with groups for whom variables have been changed.

Question 20

Correlation

Answer 20

a statistical link between two or more variables or factors.

Question 21

Correlation

Answer 21

a statistical relationship between two or more variables that expresses a level of probability. A high (positive) correlation suggests the strong probability of a relationship; a low (negative) correlation suggests the probability of little or no relationship.

Question 22

Correlations

Answer 22

when research shows a relationship or connection between two or more variables.

Question 23

Covert observation

Answer 23

observation-based research in which the observer’s true identity and the purpose of their study are hidden from participants.

Question 24

Covert observation

Answer 24

those being studied are unaware they are part of a research project.

Question 25

Critical theory

Answer 25

Critical theorists attempt to analyse society and then try to change it for the better, rather than simply to understand and explain societal mechanisms. Critical theory demonstrated a liberal, open-minded approach to sociology, which was sceptical concerning a positivist approach to social science.

Question 26

Cross-sectional survey

Answer 26

research method focused on identifying groups that share broad similarities, such as level of education, and measuring differences in a single variable; whether, for example, people with a high level of education have higher rates of suicide than those with a lower level of education.

Question 27

Cultural capital

Answer 27

consists of the range of skills, knowledge and attributes that help people to succeed in life. This may include academic qualifications and skills, experience of foreign travel, and an understanding of the arts.

Question 28

Culture

Answer 28

the beliefs of a society and their symbolic representation in creative activities. Sometimes used in a broader way to mean way of life (Fulcher and Scott, 2011).

Question 29

Culture

Answer 29

the ‘way of life’ of a particular group. This is normally defined in terms of material culture, or the objects people produce, and non-material culture, or the ideas and beliefs they create.

Question 30

Data

Answer 30

information that a researcher draws on and/or generates during a study.

Question 31

Deductive approach

Answer 31

starting with a theory and using evidence to test that theory.

Question 32

Deductive reasoning (wikipedia)

Answer 32

“also deductive logic, is the process of deduction from one or more statements (premises) to reach a logically certain conclusion. Deductive reasoning goes in the same direction as that of the conditionals, and links premises with conclusions. If all premises are true, the terms are clear, and the rules of deductive logic are followed, then the conclusion reached is necessarily true. Deductive reasoning (““top-down logic””) contrasts with inductive reasoning (““bottom-up logic””) in the following way; in deductive reasoning, a conclusion is reached reductively by applying general rules which hold over the entirety of a closed domain of discourse, narrowing the range under consideration until only the conclusion(s) is left. In inductive reasoning, the conclusion is reached by generalizing or extrapolating from specific cases to general rules, i.e., there is epistemic uncertainty. An example of an argument using deductive reasoning:

1. All men are mortal. (First premise)
2. Socrates is a man. (Second premise)
3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (Conclusion)”

Question 33

Deductive reasoning, or deduction (wikipedia)

Answer 33

allows deriving (b) from (a) only where (b) is a formal logical consequence of (a). In other words, deduction derives the consequences of the assumed. Given the truth of the assumptions, a valid deduction guarantees the truth of the conclusion. For example, given that “Wikis can be edited by anyone” (a1) and “Wikipedia is a wiki” (a2), it follows that “Wikipedia can be edited by anyone” (b).

Question 34

Demand characteristics

Answer 34

Pending

Question 35

Determinism

Answer 35

the claim that human behaviour is shaped by forces beyond the immediate control of individuals, such as social structures or ‘society’.

Question 36

Deterministic (wikipedia)

Answer 36

In mathematics, computer science and physics, a deterministic system is a system in which no randomness is involved in the development of future states of the system. A deterministic model will thus always produce the same output from a given starting condition or initial state.

Question 37

Digital content

Answer 37

information such as social media that is distributed via the internet.

Question 38

Economic determinism

Answer 38

idea that the form taken by economic relationships (such as master and serf in feudal society or employer and employee in capitalist society) is the most significant relationship in any society. This determines the form taken by all other political and cultural relationships.

Question 39

Epistemology (wikipedia)

Answer 39

is the study of the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief. Much debate in epistemology centers on four areas: (1) the philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to such concepts as truth, belief, and justification, (2) various problems of skepticism, (3) the sources and scope of knowledge and justified belief, and (4) the criteria for knowledge and justification. Epistemology addresses such questions as: “What makes justified beliefs justified?”, “What does it mean to say that we know something?”, and fundamentally “How do we know that we know?” In mathematics, it is known that 2 + 2 = 4, but there is also knowing how to add two numbers, and knowing a person (e.g., knowing other persons, or knowing oneself), place (e.g., one’s hometown), thing (e.g., cars), or activity (e.g., addition). Some philosophers think there is an important distinction between “knowing that” (know a concept), “knowing how” (understand an operation), and “acquaintance-knowledge” (know by relation), with epistemology being primarily concerned with the first of these. Whether someone’s belief is true is not a prerequisite for (its) belief. On the other hand, if something is actually known, then it categorically cannot be false. For example, if a person believes that a bridge is safe enough to support her, and attempts to cross it, but the bridge then collapses under her weight, it could be said that she believed that the bridge was safe but that her belief was mistaken. It would not be accurate to say that she knew that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. By contrast, if the bridge actually supported her weight, then the person might say that she had believed the bridge was safe, whereas now, after proving it to herself (by crossing it), she knows it was safe.

Question 40

Ethical

Answer 40

relating to moral principles that state what is right and wrong.

Question 41

Ethical guidelines

Answer 41

guidance provided by social science organisations and universities on how to conduct morally acceptable research, covering issues such as informed consent and confidentiality.

Question 42

Ethical issue

Answer 42

a concern with morals and how to conduct morally acceptable research.

Question 43

Ethical issues

Answer 43

‘ethics’ refers to the morality of doing something. Ethical questions relating to sociological research involve beliefs about what a researcher should or should not do before, during and after their research.

Question 44

Ethnography

Answer 44

the study of the way of life of a group of people in order to understand their world from their perspective.

Question 45

Ethnography

Answer 45

the in-depth study of a group or culture, usually involving participant observation and often other methods as well.

Question 46

Etymology

Answer 46

is the study of the history of words. By extension, the phrase “the etymology of [some word]” means the origin of the particular word. For place names, there is a specific term, toponymy.

Question 47

Experiment

Answer 47

a research method which follows a set procedure to test a hypothesis. Laboratory experiments take place in a closed environment where conditions can be precisely monitored and controlled. Field experiments take place in the ‘real world’.

Question 48

Experimental effect

Answer 48

any unintended impact of the experiment on participant.

Question 49

Experimental group

Answer 49

the subjects of an experiment. The researcher changes different variables to test their effect on behaviour. There is often also a control group, for whom the variable is not changed. This allows comparisons to be made between the control and experimental groups.

Question 50

Experimenter bias

Answer 50

the unintended effect of the experimenter on a participant.

Question 51

Falsification

Answer 51

looking for evidence to disprove a theory.

Question 52

Falsification

Answer 52

the principle that scientific theories should be framed in such a way that they can be disproved (falsified).

Question 53

Feminism

Answer 53

a broad range of approaches dealing with male-female relationships from the perspective of the latter.

Question 54

Feminist methodology

Answer 54

a methodology designed to reflect feminist ideals and values.

Question 55

Field experiment

Answer 55

an experiment conducted in everyday social settings.

Question 56

Field experiment

Answer 56

experiments that take place in the ‘real world’; beyond the closed, controlled environment of the laboratory.

Question 57

Focus group

Answer 57

a group discussion about one particular theme or topic guided by a moderator; it explores how participants interact and respond to each other’s view.

Question 58

Forces of production

Answer 58

in Marxist theory, this refers to how everything - from raw materials, through labour power to machinery - is organised in the productive process.

Question 59

Formal content analysis

Answer 59

counting how often particular words, phrases and images occur.

Question 60

Free will

Answer 60

the argument that because humans have consciousness they can make free and informed choices about their actions.

Question 61

Functionalist theory

Answer 61

major, if dated sociological theory that argues that consensus is the overriding principle on which societies are based. Focus is on institutional relationships and the functions they perform for the individual and society.

Question 62

Functions, manifest and latent

Answer 62

manifest functions are the intended consequences of an action; latent functions are the hidden or sometimes unintended consequences of that same action.

Question 63

Gatekeeper

Answer 63

the person or group in a particular setting such as a school with responsibility for allowing (or otherwise) a research in that site.

Question 64

Gender

Answer 64

the social characteristics different societies assign to individuals based on understanding of their biological or social differences. Where biological sex refers to ideas like male and female, gender refers to ideas about masculinity and feminity.

Question 65

Generalisation

Answer 65

a statement based on a relatively small group which is then applied to a larger group.

Question 66

Generalise

Answer 66

when the findings of research on a sample can be said to apply to a larger population.

Question 67

Globalisation

Answer 67

various processes - economic, political and cultural - that occur on a worldwide basis.

Question 68

Grounded theory

Answer 68

starting from ‘concrete data’ and building upwards to theory.

Question 69

Group interview

Answer 69

a type of interview covering a range of themes or topics; the researcher questions and collect data from several people at once.

Question 70

Group interviews

Answer 70

also called focus groups, these involve respondents discussing a topic as a group rather than individually.

Question 71

Hawthorne (or observer) effect

Answer 71

changes in people’s behaviour that result from their knowledge of being observed.

Question 72

Hawthorne effect

Answer 72

changes in participants’ behaviour resulting from an awareness that they are taking part in an experiment.

Question 73

Historical documents

Answer 73

documents from the past.

Question 74

Hypothesis

Answer 74

• testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
• proposed explanation which is used as a starting point for further investigation.
• statement put forward by the researcher which is then tested to see whether it is correct.
• statement or question that can be systematically tested.

Question 75

Hypothetico-deductive method

Answer 75

positivist research design based on the development and systematic testing of hypotheses.

Question 76

Ideology

Answer 76

a system of related beliefs.

Question 77

Inductive approach

Answer 77

starting with evidence and developing a theory from that evidence.

Question 78

Inductive reasoning (wikipedia)

Answer 78

is a method of reasoning in which the premises are viewed as supplying some evidence for the truth of the conclusion; this is in contrast to deductive reasoning. While the conclusion of a deductive argument is certain, the truth of the conclusion of an inductive argument may be probable, based upon the evidence given. For example, a generalization (more accurately, an inductive generalization) proceeds from a premise about a sample to a conclusion about the population.
The proportion Q of the sample has attribute A.
Therefore: The proportion Q of the population has attribute A.

Question 79

Inductive reasoning or induction (wikipedia)

Answer 79

allows inferring (b) from (a), where (b) does not follow necessarily from (a). (a) might give us very good reason to accept (b), but it does not ensure (b). For example, if all swans that we have observed so far are white, we may induce that the possibility that all swans are white is reasonable. We have good reason to believe the conclusion from the premise, but the truth of the conclusion is not guaranteed. (Indeed, it turns out that some swans are black.)

Question 80

Informed consent

Answer 80

the participant only agrees to participate in the research once the sociologist has explained fully what the research is about and why it is being undertaken.

Question 81

Interpretivism

Answer 81

• an approach that explores people’s lived experiences and the meaning they attach to their actions. It favours qualitative data.
• the approach within sociology which advocates methods that enable the sociologist to understand the meanings that people attach to their actions.
• methodology based on the principle that social behaviour can only be understood subjectively, by understanding how people interpret situations and, by so doing, give them meaning. Participant observation is a classic interpretivist method.

Question 82

Interview bias

Answer 82

the effect of the interview situation itself on a participant’s responses.

Question 83

Interviewer bias

Answer 83

the effect of the interviewer on a research participant’s answers.

Question 84

Key informant

Answer 84

a member of the group being studied who provides important information and often sponsors the researcher.

Question 85

Laboratory experiment

Answer 85

an experiment conducted in a specially designed setting.

Question 86

Laboratory experiment

Answer 86

experiment that takes place in a closed environment where conditions can be precisely monitored and controlled.

Question 87

Liberal feminism

Answer 87

type of feminism that promotes gender equality.

Question 88

Life history

Answer 88

a case study of an individual’s life.

Question 89

Longitudinal study

Answer 89

• a study of the same group of people over time.
• a form of comparative analysis that involves tracking changes among a representative sample over time.
• a form of comparative analysis that involves tracking changes among a representative sample over time.

Question 90

Macrosociology

Answer 90

large-scale sociological approach where the focus is on social structures and institutions.

Question 91

Marxist feminists

Answer 91

type of feminism that focused on challenging capitalism as a route to freeing women from oppression and inequality.

Question 92

Marxist theory

Answer 92

philosophy or social theory based on the ideas of Karl Marx.

Question 93

Mechanical solidarity

Answer 93

type of solidarity characteristics of pre-industrial/tribal societies, in which people are bound together by who they are rather than what they do.

Question 94

Meronomy (wikipedia)

Answer 94

or partonomy is a type of hierarchy that deals with part–whole relationships, in contrast to a taxonomy whose categorisation is based on discrete sets. Accordingly, the unit of meronomical classification is meron, while the unit of taxonomical classification is taxon. The study of meronomy is known as mereology, and in linguistics a meronym is the name given to a constituent part of, the substance of, or a member of something.
“X” is a meronym of “Y” if an X is a part of a Y.

Question 95

Meta-narratives

Answer 95

grand stories which claim to explain things.

Question 96

Methodological pluralism

Answer 96

the use of a plurality or range of research methods, including both quantitative and qualitative methods.

Question 97

Methodological pluralism

Answer 97

combining research methodologies, such as Positivism and Interpretivism, in ways that allow each to complement the other to improve research reliability and validity.

Question 98

Methodology

Answer 98

a theory about how research should proceed.

Question 99

Mixed-methods approaches

Answer 99

using more than one method in a research project, often combining both qualitative and quantitative techniques.

Question 100

Moderator

Answer 100

an interviewer who guides focus group discussions.

Question 101

Modern industrial society

Answer 101

type of society characterised by particular forms of political, economic (mass production, manufacturing) and cultural (science, reason) beliefs and practices.

Question 102

Non-directive interviewing

Answer 102

an interviewing technique that seeks to avoid leading participants to answer in particular ways.

Question 103

Non-participant observation

Answer 103

an observation-based study in which the researcher does not join those they are studying.

Question 104

Non-participant observation

Answer 104

when the researcher observes behaviour without participating in that behaviour.

Question 105

Normal science

Answer 105

science which operates within an established paradigm.

Question 106

Norms

Answer 106

socially accepted ‘correct’ or ‘proper’ forms of behaviour. Norms either prescribe given types of behaviour or forbid them (Bilton et al., 2002).

Question 107

Norms

Answer 107

rules of behaviour (Fulcher and Scott, 2011).

Question 108

Objectivity

Answer 108

a value-free, impartial, unbiased view.

Question 109

Objectivity

Answer 109

freedom from personal or institutional bias.

Question 110

Observation schedule

Answer 110

instructions which tell the observer what to look for and how to record it.

Question 111

Observer effect

Answer 111

this occurs in an observation-based study when the observer’s known presence changes the behaviour of the people being studied.

Question 112

Official statistics

Answer 112

• numerical data produced by government departments and agencies.
• government-generated secondary source of data on areas such as crime, marriage and employment.

Question 113

Ontology (wikipedia)

Answer 113

“is the philosophical study of being. More broadly, it studies concepts that directly relate to being, in particular becoming, existence, reality, as well as the basic categories of being and their relations. Traditionally listed as a part of the major branch of philosophy known as metaphysics, ontology often deals with questions concerning what entities exist or may be said to exist and how such entities may be grouped, related within a hierarchy, and subdivided according to similarities and differences. Some philosophers, notably in the traditions of the Platonic school, contend that all nouns (including abstract nouns) refer to existent entities. Other philosophers contend that nouns do not always name entities, but that some provide a kind of shorthand for reference to a collection either of objects or of events. In this latter view, mind, instead of referring to an entity, refers to a collection of mental events experienced by a person; society refers to a collection of persons with some shared characteristics, and geometry refers to a collection of specific kinds of intellectual activities. Between these poles of realism and nominalism stand a variety of other positions.
Some fundamental questions of ontology include:
““What can be said to exist?””
““What is a thing?””
““Into what categories, if any, can we sort existing things?””
““What are the meanings of being?””
““What are the various modes of being of entities?”””

Question 114

Open system

Answer 114

a system in which it is impossible to control all the variables.

Question 115

Open-ended/open questions

Answer 115

questions which allow the respondent to answer in their own words.

Question 116

Operationalisation

Answer 116

• converting a concept, such as social class or cultural capital, into something that can be researched and measured.
• the process through which a theoretical concept is converted into a more concrete and measurable indicator that can be used in empirical investigations.

Question 117

Operationalise

Answer 117

translate abstract concepts into a form that can be measured.

Question 118

Organic solidarity

Answer 118

type of solidarity characteristics of industrial societies, in which people are bound together by what they do.

Question 119

Overt observation

Answer 119

• open research in which the observer’s true identity and the purpose of their research are revealed to participants.
• participant observation in which those being studied are aware they are being researched.

Question 120

Overt participant observation

Answer 120

when those being studied are aware they are being researched. Contrasted with covert participant observation, which is when those being studied are unaware that they are part of a research project.

Question 121

Paradigm

Answer 121

a framework of concepts and theories which states how the natural world operates.

Question 122

Participant observation

Answer 122

• a qualitative methods in which the researcher gathers data by joining a group and taking part in its activities.
• research method that involves the researcher participating, openly or secretly, in the behaviour they are studying.
• research method that involves the researcher participating, openly (overtly) or secretly (covertly), in the behaviour they are studying.

Question 123

Personal documents

Answer 123

• secondary source of data covering areas such as personal letters, diaries, oral (verbal) histories, websites, social networking sites and photographs.
• eg, letters, diaries, notes and photographs.

Question 124

Pilot study

Answer 124

• a small-scale study to check the suitability of the methods to be used in the main study.
• mini version’ of a full scale study designed to test its feasibility.

Question 125

Population

Answer 125

the group under study from which a sample is selected.

Question 126

Positivism

Answer 126

• an approach based partly on the methods used in the natural sciences. It favours quantitative data.
• the approach within sociology which promotes (advocates) scientific methods to discover facts about the social world.
• a methodology based on the principle that it is possible and desirable to study the social world in broadly the same way that natural scientists study the natural world.

Question 127

Postmodernism

Answer 127

microsociological perspective that rejects the modernist claim that the social world can be understood rationally and empirically. Focus is on understanding how people construct personal narratives (stories), trough which make sense of the world.

Question 128

Primary data

Answer 128

• new information produced by the researcher during the research process.
• information collected personally by a researcher.

Question 129

Qualitative data

Answer 129

• non-numeric data that expresses the quality of a relationship.
• all data (such as quotations from interview participants) that is not in numerical form.

Question 130

Quantitative data

Answer 130

• information in the form of statistics.

* information expressed numerically that captures the ‘who, what, when and where’ of behaviour.

Question 131

Questionnaire

Answer 131

research method consisting of a list of written questions. Closed-ended questions provide possible answers from which the respondent can choose, while open-ended questions mean the respondent may answer in their own words.

Question 132

Quota sampling

Answer 132

a type of stratified sampling in which selection from the strata is not random.

Question 133

Radical feminism

Answer 133

form of feminism that sees female oppression in terms of patriarchal relationships.

Question 134

Random sampling

Answer 134

a sampling technique in which every member of the sampling frame has a known chance of being selected.

Question 135

Rapport

Answer 135

a friendly, trusting and understanding relationship.

Question 136

Realist view

Answer 136

an approach which assumes that events in both the natural and social worlds are produced by underlying structures and mechanisms.

Question 137

Reflexivity

Answer 137

in the context of research, reflecting on yourself, looking back at your research, and examining how your values and background might have influenced your findings.

Question 138

Relations of production

Answer 138

in Marxist theory, the social relationships into which people MUST enter in order to survive, to produce and reproduce their means of life. In capitalist society, the main relations of production involve owners and non-owners.

Question 139

Relativism

Answer 139

the idea that all knowledge is relative to time, place, culture and the individual.

Question 140

Reliability

Answer 140

data are reliable when different researchers using the same methods obtain the same results.

Question 141

Reliability

Answer 141

this generally refers to the effectiveness of the research approach in generating consistent data. A researcher can check the reliability of their research by repeating (replicating) the research to see if they get the same, or very similar, results.

Question 142

Reliable (scientific method)

Answer 142

refers to the idea that it is possible to check the accuracy of a piece of research by repeating (replicating) it to see if we get the same, or very similar, results.

Question 143

Replication

Answer 143

repeating an experiment or research study under the same conditions.

Question 144

Representative sample

Answer 144

a subgroup that is typical of its population.

Question 145

Representativeness

Answer 145

extent to which the characteristics of a sample population accurately reflect those of the target population.

Question 146

Research ethics committees

Answer 146

bodies in universities that scrutinise proposals.

Question 147

Research funding

Answer 147

the source of funding for academic research.

Question 148

Research funding

Answer 148

Pending

Question 149

Research methods

Answer 149

techniques for collecting data such as interviews or questionnaires.

Question 150

Research participants

Answer 150

the people who researchers study.

Question 151

Researcher bias

Answer 151

condition in which the presence or behaviour of the researcher introduces uncontrolled variables into the research, making it unreliable or invalid.

Question 152

Researcher effect

Answer 152

also called the interviewer effect, this refers to how the relationship between researcher and respondent may bias responses and lead to invalid data.

Question 153

Respondent

Answer 153

a person who is the subject of a research process or who respond to the research.

Question 154

Response rate

Answer 154

the percentage of the sample that participates in the research.

Question 155

Roles

Answer 155

the normative expectations attached to particular social positions. These define the ways in which people are expected to behave (Fulcher and Scott, 2011).

Question 156

Sample

Answer 156

a subgroup of research participants from the larger group to be studied.

Question 157

Sample attrition

Answer 157

the reduction in size of the original sample over time.

Question 158

Sampling and sampling techniques

Answer 158

a sample involves a small number of subjects drawn from a much larger (target) population. Sociologists use a variety of random and non-random sampling techniques.

Question 159

Sampling error

Answer 159

anything in the research design that causes a sample intended to be representative of a target population to become unrepresentative; a self-selected sample, for example, is a form of sampling error.

Question 160

Sampling frame

Answer 160

a list of members of the research population.

Question 161

Sampling technique

Answer 161

a procedure (such as snowball or stratified random sampling) used to obtain a sample.

Question 162

Sampling unit

Answer 162

a member of the research population such as a household or a student.

Question 163

Scientific method

Answer 163

The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century. It involves careful observation, applying rigorous skepticism about what is observed, given that cognitive assumptions can distort how one interprets the observation. It involves formulating hypotheses, via induction, based on such observations; experimental and measurement-based testing of deductions drawn from the hypotheses; and refinement (or elimination) of the hypotheses based on the experimental findings. These are principles of the scientific method, as distinguished from a definitive series of steps applicable to all scientific enterprises. Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, they are frequently the same from one to another. The process of the scientific method involves making conjectures (hypotheses), deriving predictions from them as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions. A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. The hypothesis might be very specific, or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments or studies. A scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment or observation that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested

Question 164

Scientific method

Answer 164

a way of generating knowledge about the world through objective, systematic and controlled research. The hypothetico-deductive model is an example of a scientific method.

Question 165

Scientific revolution

Answer 165

the overthrow of an established paradigm by a new paradigm.

Question 166

Secondary data

Answer 166

• data that already exists; data not personally generated by the researcher.
• pre-existing information used by the researcher.

Question 167

Self-completion questionnaire

Answer 167

a questionnaire that the respondent fills in.

Question 168

Semiology

Answer 168

• the analysis of signs.
• the study of cultural meanings embedded in media forms, often used to explore and interpret ‘hidden meanings’ embedded within texts.

Question 169

Semiotic analysis

Answer 169

the study of signs and symbols and how they combine to create meaning.

Question 170

Semi-structured interview

Answer 170

similar to a structure interview, but the interviewer probes with additional questions.

Question 171

Semi-structured interview

Answer 171

research method in which a respondent is encouraged to talk at length about a particular subject. Also called focused interviews because the topic is decided by the researcher and is the focus of their questions.

Question 172

Simple random sampling

Answer 172

a technique in which all members of the sampling frame have an equal chance of being selected.

Question 173

Snowball sampling

Answer 173

a technique in which members of the sample select each other.

Question 174

Social change

Answer 174

on a macro level, social change involves a major shift in the political, economic or cultural order (such as the change from feudalism to capitalism of pre-modern to modern society). On a micro level it can refer to everyday changes in political, economic or cultural relationships.

Question 175

Social constructionism

Answer 175

is the theory that our understanding of the world around us is principally created through interactions between people, and the sharing of knowledge and viewpoints.

Question 176

Social control

Answer 176

the various mechanisms, such as rewards and punishments, that individuals and societies use to maintain order.

Question 177

Social desirability effect

Answer 177

bias resulting from a research participant’s desire to reflect in their responses what is generally seen as the right way to behave.

Question 178

Social facts

Answer 178

the institutions, norms and values of society.

Question 179

Social facts

Answer 179

consist of manner of acting, thinking and feeling external to the individual, which are invested with a coercive power by virtue of which they exercise control over him.

Question 180

Social order

Answer 180

the behavioural patterns and regularities established by societies that make social action possible.

Question 181

Social policy

Answer 181

a set of ideas and actions pursued by governments to meet a particular social objective. A housing policy, for example, sets out the various criteria required to solve a perceived social problem.

Question 182

Social problem

Answer 182

behaviour seen to ‘case public friction and/or private misery’, usually involving some form of ‘public outcry or call for action’ (Stanley, 2004). A social problem is always defined from the perspective of the powerful.

Question 183

Social survey

Answer 183

systematic collection of the same type of data from a fairly large number of people.

Question 184

Society

Answer 184

most commonly used to refer to the totality of social relationships within a national population, as in British society, but often used loosely to refer to any social unit, from local group to ‘global society’. (Fulcher and Scott, 2011).

Question 185

Society

Answer 185

is a cluster, or system, of institutionalised modes of conduct. (Giddens, 1986).

Question 186

Sociology

Answer 186

is the analysis of the social, which can be treated at any level (e.g. dyadic interaction, social groups. Large organisations or whole societies).

Question 187

Sociology

Answer 187

is the scientific study of human social life, groups, and societies (Giddens, 1986).

Question 188

Sociology

Answer 188

is a social science, having its main focus the study of the social institutions brought into being by the industrial transformations of the past two or three centuries (Giddens, 1986).

Question 189

Sociology

Answer 189

as reasoned and rigorous study of social life, is the study of how membership of social groups, from families through schools to workplaces, influences people’s behaviour.

Question 190

Stratified random sampling

Answer 190

a technique in which the population is divided into strata and the sample is randomly drawn from each stratum. It attempts to reflect particular characteristics, such as age and gender, of the population.

Question 191

Structuralist

Answer 191

form of sociology, such as functionalism and Marxism, that focused on analysing society in terms of its institutional relationships and their effect on individual beliefs and behaviours.

Question 192

Structured interview

Answer 192

a questionnaire which the interviewer read outs and fills in.

Question 193

Structured interview

Answer 193

set of standard questions asked by the researcher of the respondent. It is similar to a questionnaire, but is delivered by the researcher rather than completed by a respondent.

Question 194

Structured/systematic observation

Answer 194

an observation-based study which usually employs an observation schedule to generate quantitative data.

Question 195

Subjectivity

Answer 195

a personal view based on an individual’s values and beliefs.

Question 196

Survey (social survey)

Answer 196

Pending

Question 197

Taxonomy

Answer 197

is the practice and science of classification. The word is also used as a count noun: a taxonomy, or taxonomic scheme, is a particular classification. Originally, taxonomy referred only to the classification of organisms or a particular classification of organisms. In a wider, more general sense, it may refer to a classification of things or concepts, as well as to the principles underlying such a classification. Taxonomy is different from meronomy, which is dealing with the classification of parts of a whole. Many taxonomies have a hierarchical structure, but this is not a requirement. Taxonomy uses taxonomic units, known as “taxa” (singular “taxon”).

Question 198

Textual analysis

Answer 198

examining how the words and phrases chosen encourage a particular reading of a document.

Question 199

Thematic analysis

Answer 199

interpreting the meanings, motives and ideologies that underlie documents.

Question 200

Totalitarism

Answer 200

A totalitarian society is one in which the power elite controls all aspects of the belief system within the society.

Question 201

Traditional society

Answer 201

type of society in which behaviour is characterised by and based on long-standing customs, habits and traditions.

Question 202

Trend

Answer 202

the general direction in which statistics on something (such as the divorce rate) change or move over time.

Question 203

Triangulation

Answer 203

• a way of cross-checking the validity of research findings by, for example, using mixed methods.
• the use of two or more research methods where the weaknesses of one method, such as a quantitative interview, can be balanced (offset) by the strengths of another, such as qualitative participant observation, to improve overall research reliability and validity.

Question 204

Unstructured interview

Answer 204

an interview with few, if any, pre-set questions, though *researchers usually have certain topics they wish to cover.
*free-form interview method where the objective is to get the respondent to talk, without prompting or interruption, about whatever they feel is important about a topic.

Question 205

Unstructured observation

Answer 205

an observation-based study that produces a detailed description of behaviour as seen by the researcher.

Question 206

Valid (scientific method)

Answer 206

data is only useful if it actually describes what it claim to measure or describe. The validity of statistics may be limited by the mean by which it was collected (reported and unreported facts).

Question 207

Validity

Answer 207

• data are valid if they represent a true or accurate measurement.
• the extent to which a research method describes or measures what it claims to describe or measure.

Question 208

Value consensus

Answer 208

agreement about the things a society, and by extension individuals within that society, thinks are important.

Question 209

Value judgements

Answer 209

judgements based solely on the values of those making a decision; value judgements are, by definition, subjective.

Question 210

Value pluralism

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Answer 210

The word ‘pluralism’ generally refers to the view that there are many of the things in question (concepts, scientific world views, discourses, viewpoints etc.) The issues arising from there being many differ widely from subject area to subject area. This entry is concerned with moral pluralism—the view that there are many different moral values. Political Liberalism need not be based on value pluralism: a defence of toleration of different value systems need not rely on the claim that there are plural moral values. We shall leave political pluralism aside for the purposes of this entry, and concentrate on moral value pluralism. Moral value pluralism should be distinguished from political pluralism. Political pluralism, which, like moral value pluralism, is often referred to as ‘value pluralism’, is a view associated with political liberalism. Political pluralism is concerned with the question of what sort of restrictions governments can put on people’s freedom to act according to their values. It is also worth emphasising that moral value pluralism does not entail relativism. The idea is not that all values or value systems are equally true. John Stuart Mill suggested that there are higher and lower pleasures (Mill, 2002, p. 241), the idea being that the value of higher and lower pleasures is measured on different scales. In other words, there are discontinuities in the measurement of value. The distinction between higher and lower pleasures allows us to say that no amount of lower pleasures can outweigh some amount of higher pleasures. As Mill puts it, it is better to be an unhappy human being than a happy pig.

Question 211

Value-free

Answer 211

the ability of researchers to prevent their own values (such as personal, political or religious values) from influencing their research.

Question 212

Value-freedom

Answer 212

general principle that the conduct and findings of the research process should not be influenced by the values of the researcher.

Question 213

Values

Answer 213

ideals and beliefs regarded as important by a society or social group (Bilton et al., 2002).

Question 214

Values

Answer 214

cultural beliefs and ideas that have a normative or moral character, specifying what is good and what ought or should happen in particular societies (Fulcher and Scott, 2011).

Question 215

Variables

Answer 215

factors that affect behaviour. Variables can vary, for example, temperature can increase or decrease.

Question 216

Variables

Answer 216

factors that can be changed (manipulated) by the researcher to understand their effect on behaviour.

Question 217

Verstehen

Answer 217

as used by Weber, an approach for interpreting the meanings and motives that direct individual action. It involves understanding research participants’ situations as they themselves understand them.

Question 218

Verstehen

Answer 218

research strategy central to participant observation, which takes advantage of the researcher’s ability to see things from the subject’s viewpoint (empathy).

Question 219

Victim surveys

Answer 219

surveys that ask respondents whether they have been victims of particular crimes during a specified period and, if so, whether they reported them to the police.

Question 220

Volunteer sample

Answer 220

a sample in which members of the sample are self-selected.

Question 221

Weberian theory

Answer 221

a sociological perspective, deriving from the work of Max Weber, focused on understanding and explaining social action. Contemporary forms of Weberian sociology are usually expressed as interactionist sociology.