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sociology paper 1 > theories and debates > Flashcards

theories and debates Flashcards

1
Q

consensus theories

A
  • functionalism
  • neo functionalism
  • new right
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2
Q

conflict theories

A
  • traditional marxism
  • neo marxism
  • feminism
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3
Q

Durkheim - collective consciousness/social solidarity (functionalism)

A
  • emphasised a shared moral code or collective consciousness that stops society from falling into anomie and maintains social solidarity
  • in traditional society social order stems from mechanical solidarity where people perform similar tasks to survive (eg farming) and the main source of regulation is religion so people have shared interests
  • in modern society social order stems from organic solidarity where jobs become increasingly different so there is a chain of interdependence on one another
  • the biological analogy is the idea that society works like the human body with separate specialised organs and functions
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4
Q

Parsons - value consensus (functionalism)

A
  • developed Durkheim’s collective consciousness further into the value consensus
  • similarly to the biological analogy he suggests 4 functional prerequisites need to be met for society to survive: adaptation, goal maintenance, integration, pattern maintenance
  • society is a self regulating system and changes in one part of the system produce change elsewhere to keep society in equilibrium
  • structural differentiation is the idea that social institutions become more specialised, with new institutions developing to perform new functions or fulfil existing functions more efficiently
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5
Q

Merton - manifest and latent functions (neo-functionalism)

A

certain actions of the system may be functional for some but dysfunctional for others (eg the class system) with some institutions having no function for society at all
- manifest functions - functions that are obvious
- latent functions - functions that are hidden
- functional alternatives - more than one institution can perform the same function

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6
Q

strengths of functionalism

A
  • gives sociologists a useful theoretical framework to apply to any society
  • accounts for gradual change
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7
Q

weaknesses of functionalism

A
  • overly positive
  • cannot explain rapid change
  • deterministic
  • ignores inequality and conflict
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8
Q

new right approach

A

political perspective rather than an approach influential for the Conservative Thatcher Government with its central beliefs including the importance of ‘traditional values’, the need for harsh punishment and a dislike of the welfare state

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9
Q

new right opinion of families

A

highly critical of SPFs for 2 reasons:
- believe male and female role models are needed for adequate socialisation
- expensive as too much of their income comes from the welfare state, offering the underclass perverse incentives to work

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10
Q

Murray - underclass (new right)

A

suggested that the underclass (long term unemployed, welfare dependents, single mothers) patterns carry from one generation to the next

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11
Q

new right opinion on crime

A

the underclass and SPFs cause crime as its benefits outweigh the costs in rational choice theory, so harsher punishments must exist to combat crime

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12
Q

Marx - traditional marxism

A
  • fundamental parts of society are the classes
  • bourgeoisie own the means of production and the proletariat are exploited by having to work for them to make a living
  • proletariat do not realise the unfairness due to capitalist ideology, which creates false class consciousness
  • the main function is therefore to transmit dominant capitalist ideology to keep the working classes at the bottom
  • eventually the proletariat will see through this due to alienation and recessions and have a revolution to remove the bourgeoisie and create a socialist or communist society
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13
Q

strengths of marxism

A
  • accounts for social conflict
  • explains how capitalist society functions as a whole
  • accounts for revolutionary social change motivated by conflict
  • evidence based in how communist revolutions have occurred in countries such as Cuba, China and Russia
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14
Q

weaknesses of marxism

A
  • unscientific as can’t be disproven
  • deterministic in implying w/c are all brainwashed
  • failed predictions with religion not disappearing in communist countries or some returning to capitalism
  • out of date as postmodernists say class boundaries have become more blurred or non-existent
  • other conflicts in society such as religion
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15
Q

Gramsci - cultural hegemony (humanistic neo-marxism)

A

suggested capitalism had endured because capitalist ideology was too powerful and their ideas have cultural hegemony (dominance) and argued that the superstructure divides into 2 main parts:
- political society - made up of the institutions that rule by force
- civil society - made up of institutions that rule by consent
civil society plays a key role in maintaining cultural hegemony by allowing the w/c to have a dual consciousness (eg religion)

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16
Q

strengths of humanist neo-marxism

A
  • more useful than classic marxism in modern society
  • much clearer on factors that could trigger a revolution
  • evidence in mass media for challenges to cultural hegemony or ruling class ideological domination
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17
Q

weaknesses of humanist neo-marxism

A
  • many of the same problems of classical marxism
  • hegemony may not exist
  • lack of empirical evidence
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18
Q

radical feminism

A

strong view of the causes of patriarchy and that this is due to men taking an active part and benefitting from it

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19
Q

Firestone - biological patriarchy (radical feminism)

A

suggest that patriarchy stems from biology as women have to give birth

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20
Q

Brownmiller - fear of assault (radical feminism

A

suggests the fear of rape and domestic violence is how women remained controlled

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21
Q

lesbian separatist feminists (radical feminism)

A

suggest only lesbians can be true feminists as they are free from men

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22
Q

strengths of radical feminism

A
  • evidence that men do dominate and oppress women physically in the home (Dobash and Dobash)
  • offers a clear answer to how to end patriarchy
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23
Q

weaknesses of radical feminism

A
  • criticisms of unrealistic idea and double standards
  • marxists suggest capitalism is the source of oppression not patriarchy
  • tautological argument (patriarchy causes rape which is evidence of patriarchy)
  • not taken into account the equalities women have now gained in society
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24
Q

liberal feminism

A

do not have a unified theory of what causes patriarchy and instead believes that it is maintained through socialisation into gender roles, stereotypes and ignorance
- suggests achieving equality through gradual change in the social system and equal opportunity laws such as the Sex Discrimination Act or the development of paternity leave

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25
Q

strengths of liberal feminism

A
  • most popular form as its message appeals to many women
  • legal changes they have campaigned for have brought more equality for women
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26
Q

weaknesses of liberal feminism

A
  • other feminists say that their changes do not go far enough and equality cannot be achieved in the current social system
  • radical feminists criticise the idea that patriarchy is not beneficial to men
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27
Q

marxist feminism

A

suggest that patriarchy exists as it is beneficial to capitalism by reproducing women to carry out domestic tasks
- the only way to end patriarchy is a communist revolution

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28
Q

Bartlett - ‘familism’ ideology (marxist feminism)

A

capitalism produces a ‘familism’ ideology in that it is natural for women to be at home and carry out domestic duties as it is essential for the subordination of women

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29
Q

Ansley - ‘takers of shit’ (marxist feminism)

A

women are the ‘takers of shit’ from their w/c husbands who take out their alienation and frustration from work on their wives and children

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30
Q

strengths of marxist feminism

A
  • offers a definite answer to what causes patriarchy and how to end it
  • takes into account economic factors that other theories ignore
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31
Q

weaknesses of marxist feminism

A
  • communism didn’t bring equality in the countries where it took place
  • doesn’t explain why, under capitalism, there is far more exploitation of women than men
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32
Q

black feminism

A

points out that race and class as well as gender in particular oppress black women
- most feminists say the key source of oppression is family but this may be a key source of empowerment for black women
- argue most black women experience labour as a necessity rather than a choice although m/c feminists want women to have the right to work
- m/c feminists may argue for the right to have an abortion or enjoy sex but in third world countries abortions can be forced and rape is common

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33
Q

strengths of black feminism

A
  • first theory to recognise that women experience patriarchy in different ways
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34
Q

weaknesses of black feminism

A
  • offers no answers to the causes of patriarchy
  • may place black women in one homogenous group and ignore other factors that oppress women
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35
Q

post-structural/difference feminism

A

suggests that all women experience patriarchy differently due to age, sexuality, disability, class, race etc
- offers no universal answer to patriarchy and instead wants to understand women’s experiences and the origins of patriarchy

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36
Q

strengths of post-structural/difference feminism

A
  • most up to date theory which recognises the importance of looking at gender as a whole and not just women
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37
Q

weaknesses of post-structural/difference feminism

A
  • may have lost sight of importance of inequality and focus on things like language rather than practical things like inequality at work and domestic violence
38
Q

strengths of feminism as a whole

A
  • have made a massive contribution to sociology, challenging the androcentric nature of sociological though and representing 50% of the population
  • their work has raised awareness of the power relationships in research
  • studied often marginalised and understudied social groups
39
Q

weaknesses of feminism as a whole

A
  • different branches of feminism are highly critical of each other
  • most branches focus on the experiences of white m/c women although postmodernist feminism has partially addressed this
  • criticised for focusing too heavily on the experiences of women
40
Q

social action theories

A

disagree with the idea of determinism and instead suggest that individuals are autonomous social actors who act of their own free will

41
Q

symbolic interactionism (social action theory)

A

emphasises the status of people as social actors with their own free will, consciousness, meanings and motives, arguing that society emerges from the sum of thousands of individual small-scale interactions

42
Q

Cooley - ‘looking glass self’ (labelling theory, symbolic interactionism, social action theory)

A

suggested we get a sense of ourselves from our interactions with others where we know what we are like based on the reactions of others which is why he calls it our ‘looking glass self’

43
Q

Becker - master status (labelling theory, symbolic interactionism, social action theory)

A

suggests we all apply labels to one another and that this can influence how we interact with others as the way we are labelled can lead to a self fulfilling prophecy and influence our master status in totally defining who we are

44
Q

Mead - role taking (symbolic interactionism, social action theory)

A

humans interpret each other’s behaviour by ‘role taking’ or viewing the situation from another person’s perspective which is something animals don’t do
- views humans as being self-conscious instead of mindless products of social norms

45
Q

Goffman - dramaturgical analogy (symbolic interactionism, social action theory)

A

sees society as being like a drama in how people are constantly expressing themselves to create certain impressions (impression management) which there are different elements to:
- front - the props that we use to make a performance successful (body language, clothes, objects etc)
- regions - where the performance takes place and individuals will perform different roles front and back stage
- performance failure - where we slip up and compromise the role we are performing
- role distance - the gap between ourselves and the role we are portraying which is visible when we step out of character
- power and roles - power is not just present in the hierarchy in society but also in our face to face interactions when we play our roles

46
Q

strengths of symbolic interactionism (social action theory)

A
  • not deterministic
  • acknowledges that individual meanings of things are important and does not just concentrate on measuring behaviour
47
Q

weaknesses of symbolic interactionism (social action theory)

A
  • tends to ignore how social structures such as class, power and ethnicity shape human behaviour
  • overestimates the extent to which people consciously interpret their environments or just acting out of habit
48
Q

Schutz - phenomenology (social action theory)

A

humans make sense and understand the world by classifying objects and processes as a collective society
- typifications refer to any shared concept from democracy to dogs

49
Q

Garfinkel- ethnomethodology (social action theory)

A

the idea that social meanings are often ambiguous and shifting but we do not realise this and try to make sense of them to make the world appear orderly
- encouraged students to conduct breaching experiments where they acted unusually to see how people make sense of the situation (treating their home as a hotel for example)

50
Q

strengths of phenomenology and ethnomethodology (social action theory)

A
  • not deterministic and emphasise free will of individuals
  • radical in challenging structural approaches by arguing that society’s members play a central role in creating social order so reality is socially constructed
  • Garfinkel’s work in particular gives a radical new understanding for understanding society
51
Q

weaknesses of phenomenology and ethnomethodology (social action theory)

A
  • Gouldner suggested ethnomethodology in particular is too preoccupied with mundane elements and ignore sources of wider inequality
  • does not illustrate how these meanings came about in the first place
52
Q

Weber - Weberian sociology (social action theory)

A

suggests that sociology cannot just look at external structural factors that shape behaviour but also the meanings others attach to social interactions by employing verstehen (empathetic understanding)
- in his research about calvinism said social structures changed people’s behaviour, their attitudes to work and wealth, creating the first modern capitalists

53
Q

strengths of Weberian sociology

A
  • far less deterministic than structural approaches and allows free will
  • accounts for change within the social system
  • innovative and original research methods in their approach to understanding underlying meanings of social interactions
54
Q

weaknesses of Weberian sociology

A
  • positivists would say his methods are unscientific and subjective
  • overemphasises the psychological factors that influence human behaviour and society and underestimates the influence of social structures
  • does not explain where shared meanings come from in the first place
55
Q

Giddens - social action and social structure (structuration theory)

A

says that we are not in postmodernity but instead late modernity and that social action and social structure are just 2 ways of looking at the same thing
- language is a social structure as it exists outside of any one individual to be able to understand you and there are rules to govern its use
- language is a product of agency as if individuals do not speak language then it as a structure doesn’t exist and the individuals who speak language create new words and rule, changing the social structure

56
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58
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59
Q

Giddens - ontological security (structuration theory)

A

we have an innate drive for predictability and a need for ‘ontological security’ meaning we need to be confident the world is as it appears to be, which create stability and the reproduction of social structures rather than change

60
Q

Giddens - late modernity (structuration theory)

A

late modernity is a society that is in rapid change as most people engage in reflexivity, meaning we monitor and reflect our actions and choose new ones as a result

61
Q

strengths of Giddens theory (structuration theory)

A
  • major attempt to overcome the structure vs social action debate in sociology
  • attempts to link individual action to global social processes
62
Q

weaknesses of Giddens theory (structuration theory)

A
  • doesn’t give enough attention to how social structure can prevent how much individuals can change
  • ontological security has been criticised as confused and based on a misunderstanding of psychoanalytical theory
63
Q

modernism

A
  • began in the 18th/19th centuries due to the industrial revolution and democratic revolutions
  • shift towards rationality, and a belief in science and technologies replacing individual’s beliefs
64
Q

how did modernism influence sociology?

A

caused the development of structural theories like functionalism and marxism as both emerged as a response to the rapid social change that took place during the revolution and its damaging effects on society

65
Q

postmodernism

A

not a theory but simply describes some of the characteristics in today’s society

66
Q

Lyotard - collapse of the metanarratives (postmodernism)

A

the defining characteristic of postmodernism is the collapse of the metanarratives such as religion or science, with now a multitude of competing explanations about the world

67
Q

characteristics of postmodernism

A
  • fragmentation
  • fluidity
  • hybridity
  • globalisation
  • consumption
  • project of identity
  • media saturation
68
Q

fragmentation (postmodernism)

A

metanarratives of factors being fixed at birth (class, gender, ethnicity etc) have been broken down, such as gender no longer being male or female and shattered into endless possibilities

69
Q

fluidity (postmodernism)

A

things such as gender, identity and sexuality are no longer fixed but are on a continuum and may shift and change over a lifetime

70
Q

hybridity (postmodernism)

A

breakdown of universal truths has led to a pick and mix culture in which people combine elements of systems to create their own lifestyles and identities

71
Q

globalisation (postmodernism)

A

the increased interconnectedness of countries has led to culture boundaries being blurred and becoming a global culture, but this can lead to cultural dilution or homogenisation

72
Q

consumption (postmodernism)

A

the things we buy and wear are ways we construct our identities

73
Q

project of identity (postmodernism)

A

individuals are free to construct their own identities through other factors of postmodernism

74
Q

Baudrillard - media saturation (postmodernism)

A

the media saturates society making it difficult to understand where society and media begin and end (reality TV where people play a staged version of themselves etc)

75
Q

strengths of postmodernism

A
  • useful in challenging ideas, concepts and assumptions we make about society
  • has opened up new topics for study, such as media or sexuality, in ways that were previously unexplored
  • accounts for changes in 20th and 21st centuries
  • other sociologists accept many observations made by postmodernists
76
Q

weaknesses of postmodernism

A
  • hypocritical by creating itself as a new metanarrative
  • false idea of universal truths existing
  • many people aren’t free to construct their identities
  • most people can recognise difference between reality and media
  • argument we are in late modernity instead
77
Q

overview of sociology as a science

A
  • positivists argue can be a science by modelling itself on the natural sciences, using quantitative and objective methods
  • interpretivists argue it cannot be scientific as humans are governed by internal meanings and sociology must use verstehen to uncover these meanings, which may be subjective and open to personal bias
  • some, such as Kuhn, sit on the fence as sociology never has one dominant perspective and may never have a unifying theory
78
Q

Comte - laws of social development (sociology is a science)

A

science explains how things relate using laws and it is possible to discover the laws of social development that control and shape the behaviour of people in society through:
- laws of co-existence - looking at the relationship between parts of society
- laws of succession - laws that govern social change

79
Q

Durkheim - social facts (sociology is a science)

A

believes sociology is a science because we can study social facts as things to observes and measure, such as how he studied suicide rates using official statistics

80
Q

inductive logic/hypotheses (sociology is a science)

A

induction is where a theory is established from gathering evidence and forming a conclusion, which is a feature of positivism

81
Q

Popper - falsification (sociology is not a science)

A

sociology must undergo a process of falsification, where the theory must be challenged to prove it wrong, but many theories such as functionalism or marxism cannot be falsified as they are too abstract

82
Q

Weber - verstehen (sociology is not a science)

A

verstehen suggests that sociology requires a subjective understanding so cannot be a science

83
Q

Kuhn - paradigm shifts (sociology is and isn’t a science)

A
  • pre-science - period of discovery where there was no central paradigm
  • normal science - scientists used an established paradigm to support their theory
  • revolutionary science - paradigms are challenged
    argues sociology will never pass the period of pre-science as there is no dominant perspective
84
Q

overview of sociology and value freedom

A
  • positivists believe society could be improved through objective scientific knowledge, free of researcher values
  • interpretivists argue value-freedom is impossible due to how research is subjective and how the sociologist’s values may influence the methods they use
  • Weber fits between the 2 and says it cannot be value-free in the research process but can be when collecting data
85
Q

Durkheim - positivism (sociology can be value-free)

A

the aim of sociology is the uncover social facts using objective quantitative methods such as official statistics through hypothesis testing so there is little space for opinions or biases from the researcher

86
Q

Weber - objectivity and values (some aspects can be value free)

A

sociologists should use their values in determining the topics they research (Weber’s beliefs led him to study calvinism) but they should try to be objective when interpreting data, explicitly stating values which may influence their research

87
Q

committed sociology (sociology should be value laden)

A

sociology should be value laden and committed in order to be used to challenge inequality and discrimination

88
Q

Becker - overdog and underdog (sociology should be value laden)

A

sociology has always been studied from the perspective of the powerful ‘over dog’ and wanted to challenge this to say that it should be studied from the perspective of the less powerful ‘underdog’, such as the mentally ill or criminal in the scenario

89
Q

Giddens - social policy (sociology is useful for social policy)

A

suggests 4 key ways sociology can be useful in relation to the creation of social policy:
- helps us to understand social problems (identifying relative deprivation leading to minimum wage etc)
- can see if social policy is having any effect (if EMA means more stay on in post 16 education)
- make government aware of cultural differences so policy can be planned more effectively (disabled people being unable to find work led to disability discrimination act)
- may cause people to put pressure on the government to change social policy (eg homosexuals may become aware of research highlighting their discrimination which leads to anti-discrimination laws)

90
Q

limits of sociology’s influence on social policy

A
  • elected government will only respond to those who may vote for them (eg homosexuals becoming a larger voting group gain anti-discrimination laws)
  • financial constraints of government despite good research ideas
  • frequently changing governments may undermine long-term strategies and some prime ministers may not value sociologists
  • policies may be undermined by pressure groups affected by them (eg drinking policies may be opposed by pubs)
  • marxist and feminist theories for example may be too extreme to apply by governments
  • increased competing for funding means research may end up finding just what the government wants to hear
  • more likely to have an impact if population is in agreement (creation of welfare state and NHS were backed by public

sociology paper 1 (7 decks)

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