Theories

Question 1

What, then, is theory?

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Answer 1

Fred Kerlinger in Foundations of Behavioural Research (1977) defines theory as a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), and propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena.

Question 2

Alan Isaak in Scope and Methods of Political Science (1969) defines theory as

Answer 2

a set of related empirical generalization

Question 3

Types of theories

Answer 3

Empirical

Normative

Question 4

David Easton in “Alternative Strategies in Theoretical Research” in Varieties of Political Theory edited by Easton in (1966) suggested that theories could be classified according to their:

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Answer 4

Scope, - whether they are macro or micro theories;
–Function – whether they seek to deal with static or dynamic phenomena, with structure or process;
–Structure – whether they are logical systems of thought with closely knit interrelationships or whether they constitute a more loosely defined set of propositions;
–Level – by the relationship of the behavioural systems to which they refer as ranked on some hierarchical scale.

Question 5

Social scientists, as scientists generally, operate in two worlds:

Answer 5

the world of observation and experience and the world of ideas, theories and models.

Question 6

Theory Before Research

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Answer 6

This school believes that theory should come first, and then be followed by research. The research position of this school is often referred to as the “Theory-then-research strategy”.

Question 7

Whonis the major proponent

Answer 7

Karl Popper (1902-1994) is the proponent of this research tradition. Popper’s arguments are captured in two of his books, namely: The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1961)and Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge (1968).

Question 8

Research Before Theory

•whonis the major proponent

Answer 8

Robert Merton in Social Theory and Social Structure (1968) countered the position of theory-then-research strategy.
•According to Merton:
“it is my central thesis that empirical research goes far beyond the passive role of verifying and testing theory; it does more than confirm or refute hypotheses. Research plays an active role: it performs at least four major functions which help shape the development of theory. It initiates, it reformulates, it deflects, and it clarifies theory.”

Question 9

What is a model

Answer 9

•A model is an imitation of or an abstraction from reality that is intended to order and simplify the view of that reality while still capturing its essential characteristics

Question 10

Paradigm

Answer 10

A paradigm is simply a belief system (or theory) that guides the way we do things, or more formally establishes a set of practices.

Question 11

identified basic elements of paradigm as consisting:

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Answer 11

i)The conceptual element: A paradigm contains the concepts that are used in theoretical propositions, and which directly or indirectly, provide a focus in empirical investigation;
•ii)The theoretical element which unlike the conceptual element can be subjected to empirical verification;

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•iii)The puzzle-identifying element which specifies what the scientific community that accepts a paradigm wants to solve;
•iv) criteria of admissibility; and,
•v)The ontologic-predictive element which suggests what the conceptual and theoretical elements would look like if the paradigm is fully articulated.
•It defines the boundaries of the set of potentially solvable puzzles.

Question 12

The theory-then-research strategy involves five stages:

Answer 12

i) Construct an explicit theory or model;
ii) Select a proposition derived from the theory or model for empirical investigation;
iii) Design a research project to test the proposition;
iv) if the proposition derived from the theory is rejected by the empirical data, make changes in the theory or the research project
v) If the proposition is not rejected, select other propositions for testing or attempt to improve the theory.

Question 13

The research-then-theory strategy consists of the following four stages:

Answer 13

i) Investigate a phenomenon and delineate its attributes;
ii) Measure the attributes in a variety of situations;
iii) Analyze the resulting data to determine if there are systematic patterns of variation;
iv) Once systematic patterns are discovered, construct a theory.

Question 14

Every paradigm, notwithstanding how broad-based, contains

Answer 14

a set of theories (or what is called meta-theories (combination of many theories)) and specific methodological parameters whose internal linkages legitimize their unity under one paradigm

Question 15

basic elements of paradigm

Answer 15

)The conceptual element: A paradigm contains the concepts that are used in theoretical propositions, and which directly or indirectly, provide a focus in empirical investigation;
ii)The theoretical element which unlike the conceptual element can be subjected to empirical verification;

Question 16

basic elements of paradigm

Answer 16

iii)The puzzle-identifying element which specifies what the scientific community that accepts a paradigm wants to solve;
iv) criteria of admissibility; and,
v)The ontologic-predictive element which suggests what the conceptual and theoretical elements would look like if the paradigm is fully articulated.
It defines the boundaries of the set of potentially solvable puzzles.