Theories Flashcards
1
Q
Marxist Perspective: Overview
A
- Religion is an illusion and instrument of oppression.
- The rise of industrial capitalism led to religion being taken over by the bourgeoisie - incorporated into RCI.
- It distorts people’s perception, justifies the status quo and props up capitalism.
- It produces a false consciousness by offering the illusion of hope.
2
Q
Marx’s Quote on Religion
A
“Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the sentiment of a heartless world and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people.”
3
Q
Marxist Perspective: How does religion dull the pain of oppression? (1)
A
- It promises a paradise of eternal bliss after death.
- ENGELS: Main world religions all present a vision of heaven which makes suffering on earth bearable.
- It encourages followers to anticipate something better.
4
Q
Marxist Perspective: How does religion dull the pain of oppression? (2)
A
- Makes a virtue out of suffering produced by oppression.
- Followers are encouraged to endure oppression and promised a reward.
- “It is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven.”
5
Q
Marxist Perspective: How does religion dull the pain of oppression? (3)
A
- It offers hope of supernatural intervention.
- Followers are offered hope of a better future.
- Encouraged to believe that social change will happen through prayer not individual authorship.
6
Q
Marxist Perspective: How does religion dull the pain of oppression? (4)
A
- It justifies the social order.
- Followers are encouraged to believe that God created and ordained the social structure - sacred support to the status quo.
- To change the social order would be blasphemous.
- “Rich man in his castle, poor man at his gate, God made them high and lowly and ordered their estate.” - All Things Bright & Beautiful
7
Q
Examples to SUPPORT Marxism
A
- CoE retains political, social and economic influence - Conservative Party.
- Catholic Church exercises influence over people especially in Third World countries.
- Eastern Europe - Christian churches supported the overthrow of capitalism.
8
Q
Neo-Marxism: Gramsci (1971)
A
- He was aware of control over consciousness that the Catholic Church had.
- He was critical of the church’s characteristic subservience to the state and ruling class interests.
- He, also, claimed that during historical periods, religions emerged which supported the interests of oppressed classes.
9
Q
Neo-Marxism: Maduro (1982)
A
- He rejects notion that religion is always a conservative force - potential to be revolutionary.
- He accepts that in societies where religion is dominant, social liberation can only be achieved if significant changes occur.
- He looks to Latin America - Catholic Church is conservative however liberation theology emerged.
10
Q
Neo-Marxism: Liberation Theology
A
- A movement in the 1960s in the Catholic Church.
- Strong commitment to the poor and against military dictatorships.
- Priests criticised the bourgeoisie and helped workers fight oppression.
11
Q
Neo-Marxism: Marxist Response to Liberation Theology
A
- The movement has lost influence.
* Pope John Paul II condemned Liberation Theology arguing it was too close to Marxism.
12
Q
Neo-Marxism: Turner (1983)
A
- Draws on historical evidence.
- In feudal times the peasantry were indifferent to religion.
- Religion played an important part in the lives of the ruling class.
13
Q
Limitations of Marxist Theory: Hosking (1988)
A
- HOSKING points out before the revolution there were more than 50,000 Russian orthodox churches but only 4,000 in 1939.
- LANE argues that HOSKING’S figures don’t support the idea that religion has declined.
- Research suggests that religion remained important even in a communist society.
14
Q
Limitations of Marxist Theory: Cuba
A
- Communism still flourishes in Cuba yet so does religion.
- In 1988 Fidel Castro acknowledged this by inviting Pope John Paul II.
- The Pope was met by large crowds suggesting RC remained strong even in a communist society.
15
Q
Functionalism: Malinowski (1954)
A
- Religion reinforces social norms and promotes social solidarity.
- He emphasises the psychological functions of religion in certain situations.
16
Q
Functionalism: Malinowski (Time of Life Crisis)
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- Events e.g. birth, puberty and death.
* Religion can defuse the notion of crisis at these times.
17
Q
Functionalism: Malinowski (Uncontrollable & Uncertain Events)
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• Unpredictable events are often preceded by rituals to reduce anxiety e.g. ritual of ‘canoe magic’ before fishing in the ocean - Trobriand islanders.
18
Q
Functionalism: Parsons (Primary Source of Meaning)
A
- Religion provides people with explanations for uncontrollable/contradictory events e.g. why do good people suffer?
- Events defy our sense of justice and make life appear meaningless - could undermine commitment to society’s values.
19
Q
Functionalism: Parsons (Creates & Legitimates Society’s Central Values)
A
- Religion provides guidelines for human action and standards.
- Many norms in society are a reflection of religious beliefs e.g. 10 Commandments.
20
Q
Functionalism: Civil Religion
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- BELLAH (1970): religion unifies society, especially a multi-faith society like America.
- He argues that civil religion unifies America - a faith in Americanism or the ‘American way of life.’
21
Q
Functionalism: Civil Religion (National Faith)
A
- Civil religion integrates society in a way which religion cannot - claim loyalty of everyone.
- Loyalty to nation-state and belief in God = true American.
- Expressed many ways e.g. singing national anthem, pledge allegiance to the flag.
- Binds all Americans together.
22
Q
Feminism: Theory on Religion
A
- Religion is an instrument of domination and oppression - product of patriarchy.
- GIDDENS (1997): “The Christian religion is a resolutely male affair in its symbolism as well as its hierarchy.”
- The secondary/subordinate role of women in Christian doctrine is typical of other religions.
- ARMSTRONG (1993): No major religions have been good to women. There have been changes but women are still excluded.
23
Q
Feminism: Holm (1994)
A
- Major religions subordinate women to marginal positions/exclude them.
- Position is often linked to sexuality. Women’s bodies/sexuality is often seen as dangerous e.g. women who menstruate are forbidden to go into mosque.
24
Q
Feminism: Religious Teachings
A
- Teachings are patriarchal. Men are made “in the image of God” and women “for the glory of man.”
- “Wives be subject to your husband, as to the Lord. For the husband is the head of the wife as Christ is the head of the Church.”
25
Q
Feminism: Religious Figures
A
- Female characters are less important.
- Prominent females Mary and Eve reinforce stereotypes about the virtues of motherhood and the dangers of female sexuality.
- Women defined by their sexuality not actions.
26
Q
Feminism: Simone De Beauvoir (1953)
A
- Men have exercised control over religious beliefs arguing “man enjoys the great advantage of having a God endorse the code he writes.”
- Divine authority supports male dominance - “man is master by divine right, the fear of God will therefore repress any impulse towards revolt in the downtrodden female.”
- Religion gives the false belief that women will be rewarded for suffering in egalitarian heaven and so the status quo is maintained.
27
Q
Feminism Evaluation: Nawal El Saadawi (1980)
A
- She looks at the importance of religion in creating/perpetuating oppression.
- She explains sexual aggression, prostitution etc. in terms of patriarchal dominance over women.
- Oppressive practices are attributed to influence of Islam but she blames dominant patriarchal ideology which allows men to distort religion to serve their own interests.
- Men use religion as an abuse of power.
28
Q
Feminism Evaluation: Helen Watson (1994)
A
- Oppressive practices can be open to varied interpretations.
- Veiling for non-Muslims is a sign of oppression however it is rarely viewed like this by Muslim women.
- The hijab has advantages for women that can reduce/allow them to cope with male oppression. It is a means of gender and religious assertiveness.
29
Q
Feminism Evaluation
A
- In 1992 women allowed to be ordained vicars and in 2015 Bishops - Church of England (It was the religious people who were against this, not the clergy)
- Women find comfort in religion
- Secularisation undermines everything.
- Not all inherently patriarchal.
30
Q
Feminism Evaluation: Historical Interpretation
A
- DALY (1978): Women have not always been subordinate. The female sex used to be regarded with respect as it was seen as being closer to nature.
- ARMSTRONG: Women were considered as central to the spiritual quest and there were few effigies of men.
- Dominance of Monotheism represented the death knell for females.
31
Q
Feminism Evaluation: Resistance to Oppression
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- Women can no longer be seen as passive. It shouldn’t be assumed that all religions are equally as oppressive.
- HOLM & BOWKER (1994) suggest that some religious organisations develop exclusively for women.
- Judaism has allowed female rabbis since 1972 and Quakers have never been oppressive to women.
32
Q
Weber: Overview
A
• Main argument is that Calvinism preceded capitalism which emerged in areas where this religion was influential. Many early entrepreneurs were Calvinists.
33
Q
Weber: Spirit of Capitalism
A
- Modern capitalism is based on the systematic, efficient, rational pursuit of profit for its own sake rather than consumption.
- Weber argues this spirit has similarities with Calvinist beliefs and attitudes.
34
Q
Weber: Calvinist Beliefs (Predestination)
A
- Calvinists longed for a better life after death.
* Theodicy of predestination: the notion that fate is already known by God.
35
Q
Weber: Calvinist Beliefs (Divine Transcendence)
A
- No human can claim to know God’s will.
- Calvinists feel ‘unprecedented inner loneliness’ which combined with doctrine of predestination creating ‘salvation anxiety.’
36
Q
Weber: Calvinist Beliefs (Asceticism)
A
• Abstinence, self-discipline and self-denial - no pleasure in life.
37
Q
Weber: Calvinist Beliefs (Idea of Vocation)
A
- Before Calvinism, religious vocation meant renouncing every day life. This is called ‘other-worldly asceticism.’
- Calvin introduced ‘this-worldly asceticism’ - idea of a calling/vocation meant constant work in an occupation.
38
Q
Weber: Psychological Function
A
- Wealth and success performed a psychological function - it allowed people to deal with salvation anxiety.
- Wealth was a sign of God’s favour.
- Calvinists adopted negative attitude towards pleasure and were driven by pursuit of profit. This led to the emergence of capitalist societies.
39
Q
Weber: Social Change
A
- Religious beliefs can lead to social and economic change.
- Weber regards religion as a catalyst creating the energy that lies behind pivotal change.
- There are other factors that lead to capitalism however such as natural resources, trade etc.
40
Q
Weber: Evaluation
A
- TAWNEY (1938): society was already capitalist before Calvinism. Many capitalists adopted Calvinism to legitimise their wealth.
- Many Calvinist countries weren’t amongst the first to become capitalist.
- Calvinists were excluded by law and turned to business and self employment so it wasn’t their beliefs that led to capitalism.
41
Q
Functionalism: Durkheim (Sacred & Profane)
A
- All societies differentiate between sacred and profane and religion is based on this division.
- What is regarded as sacred provokes powerful emotions and is surrounded by powerful taboos - sacredness bestowed.
- A religion for Durkheim is a set of beliefs involving rituals/practices in relation to the sacred - rituals are collective.
- Sacred symbols vary but unite believers to a single moral community.
42
Q
Functionalism: Durkheim (Totemism)
A
- He studied the Arunta, an indigenous Australian tribe and their religion totemism to look at what sacred things represent.
- Each clan in the society had a totem which was a symbol of their clan - rituals surrounding it represented power of the group, reinforcing solidarity.
- He argues that God and society are one so when they worship God they are actually worshipping society.
43
Q
Functionalism: Durkheim (Collective Conscience)
A
- Sacred symbols represent collective conscience - shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge.
- Regular shared rituals reinforce collective conscience and maintain social integration.
- Shared rituals bind individuals together reminding them of the power of society.
- It makes people feel part of something greater than ourselves.
44
Q
Functionalism: Durkheim (Cognitive Functions)
A
- Religion is a source of our intellectual capacities.
- Religion is the origin of human thought and reason - provides us with basic concepts such as time, space and causation.
- Provides shared knowledge - underpins cohesion and stability.
45
Q
Functionalism Evaluation
A
- Religious pluralism undermines their argument.
- Secularisation undermines their argument.
- Religion causes conflict, it doesn’t promote togetherness.
- Based on small scale studies.
46
Q
Functionalism: Civil Religion (Symbols of America)
A
- Abraham Lincoln - almost a mythical figure, American dream.
- Wagon
