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Sociology - Beliefs in Society > Theories > Flashcards

Theories Flashcards

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1
Q

Marxist Perspective: Overview

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  • Religion is an illusion and instrument of oppression.
  • The rise of industrial capitalism led to religion being taken over by the bourgeoisie - incorporated into RCI.
  • It distorts people’s perception, justifies the status quo and props up capitalism.
  • It produces a false consciousness by offering the illusion of hope.
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2
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Marx’s Quote on Religion

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“Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the sentiment of a heartless world and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people.”

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3
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Marxist Perspective: How does religion dull the pain of oppression? (1)

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  • It promises a paradise of eternal bliss after death.
  • ENGELS: Main world religions all present a vision of heaven which makes suffering on earth bearable.
  • It encourages followers to anticipate something better.
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4
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Marxist Perspective: How does religion dull the pain of oppression? (2)

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  • Makes a virtue out of suffering produced by oppression.
  • Followers are encouraged to endure oppression and promised a reward.
  • “It is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven.”
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5
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Marxist Perspective: How does religion dull the pain of oppression? (3)

A
  • It offers hope of supernatural intervention.
  • Followers are offered hope of a better future.
  • Encouraged to believe that social change will happen through prayer not individual authorship.
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6
Q

Marxist Perspective: How does religion dull the pain of oppression? (4)

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  • It justifies the social order.
  • Followers are encouraged to believe that God created and ordained the social structure - sacred support to the status quo.
  • To change the social order would be blasphemous.
  • “Rich man in his castle, poor man at his gate, God made them high and lowly and ordered their estate.” - All Things Bright & Beautiful
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7
Q

Examples to SUPPORT Marxism

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  • CoE retains political, social and economic influence - Conservative Party.
  • Catholic Church exercises influence over people especially in Third World countries.
  • Eastern Europe - Christian churches supported the overthrow of capitalism.
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8
Q

Neo-Marxism: Gramsci (1971)

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  • He was aware of control over consciousness that the Catholic Church had.
  • He was critical of the church’s characteristic subservience to the state and ruling class interests.
  • He, also, claimed that during historical periods, religions emerged which supported the interests of oppressed classes.
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9
Q

Neo-Marxism: Maduro (1982)

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  • He rejects notion that religion is always a conservative force - potential to be revolutionary.
  • He accepts that in societies where religion is dominant, social liberation can only be achieved if significant changes occur.
  • He looks to Latin America - Catholic Church is conservative however liberation theology emerged.
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10
Q

Neo-Marxism: Liberation Theology

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  • A movement in the 1960s in the Catholic Church.
  • Strong commitment to the poor and against military dictatorships.
  • Priests criticised the bourgeoisie and helped workers fight oppression.
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11
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Neo-Marxism: Marxist Response to Liberation Theology

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  • The movement has lost influence.

* Pope John Paul II condemned Liberation Theology arguing it was too close to Marxism.

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12
Q

Neo-Marxism: Turner (1983)

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  • Draws on historical evidence.
  • In feudal times the peasantry were indifferent to religion.
  • Religion played an important part in the lives of the ruling class.
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13
Q

Limitations of Marxist Theory: Hosking (1988)

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  • HOSKING points out before the revolution there were more than 50,000 Russian orthodox churches but only 4,000 in 1939.
  • LANE argues that HOSKING’S figures don’t support the idea that religion has declined.
  • Research suggests that religion remained important even in a communist society.
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14
Q

Limitations of Marxist Theory: Cuba

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  • Communism still flourishes in Cuba yet so does religion.
  • In 1988 Fidel Castro acknowledged this by inviting Pope John Paul II.
  • The Pope was met by large crowds suggesting RC remained strong even in a communist society.
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15
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Functionalism: Malinowski (1954)

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  • Religion reinforces social norms and promotes social solidarity.
  • He emphasises the psychological functions of religion in certain situations.
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16
Q

Functionalism: Malinowski (Time of Life Crisis)

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  • Events e.g. birth, puberty and death.

* Religion can defuse the notion of crisis at these times.

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17
Q

Functionalism: Malinowski (Uncontrollable & Uncertain Events)

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• Unpredictable events are often preceded by rituals to reduce anxiety e.g. ritual of ‘canoe magic’ before fishing in the ocean - Trobriand islanders.

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18
Q

Functionalism: Parsons (Primary Source of Meaning)

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  • Religion provides people with explanations for uncontrollable/contradictory events e.g. why do good people suffer?
  • Events defy our sense of justice and make life appear meaningless - could undermine commitment to society’s values.
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19
Q

Functionalism: Parsons (Creates & Legitimates Society’s Central Values)

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  • Religion provides guidelines for human action and standards.
  • Many norms in society are a reflection of religious beliefs e.g. 10 Commandments.
20
Q

Functionalism: Civil Religion

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  • BELLAH (1970): religion unifies society, especially a multi-faith society like America.
  • He argues that civil religion unifies America - a faith in Americanism or the ‘American way of life.’
21
Q

Functionalism: Civil Religion (National Faith)

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  • Civil religion integrates society in a way which religion cannot - claim loyalty of everyone.
  • Loyalty to nation-state and belief in God = true American.
  • Expressed many ways e.g. singing national anthem, pledge allegiance to the flag.
  • Binds all Americans together.
22
Q

Feminism: Theory on Religion

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  • Religion is an instrument of domination and oppression - product of patriarchy.
  • GIDDENS (1997): “The Christian religion is a resolutely male affair in its symbolism as well as its hierarchy.”
  • The secondary/subordinate role of women in Christian doctrine is typical of other religions.
  • ARMSTRONG (1993): No major religions have been good to women. There have been changes but women are still excluded.
23
Q

Feminism: Holm (1994)

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  • Major religions subordinate women to marginal positions/exclude them.
  • Position is often linked to sexuality. Women’s bodies/sexuality is often seen as dangerous e.g. women who menstruate are forbidden to go into mosque.
24
Q

Feminism: Religious Teachings

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  • Teachings are patriarchal. Men are made “in the image of God” and women “for the glory of man.”
  • “Wives be subject to your husband, as to the Lord. For the husband is the head of the wife as Christ is the head of the Church.”
25
Q

Feminism: Religious Figures

A
  • Female characters are less important.
  • Prominent females Mary and Eve reinforce stereotypes about the virtues of motherhood and the dangers of female sexuality.
  • Women defined by their sexuality not actions.
26
Q

Feminism: Simone De Beauvoir (1953)

A
  • Men have exercised control over religious beliefs arguing “man enjoys the great advantage of having a God endorse the code he writes.”
  • Divine authority supports male dominance - “man is master by divine right, the fear of God will therefore repress any impulse towards revolt in the downtrodden female.”
  • Religion gives the false belief that women will be rewarded for suffering in egalitarian heaven and so the status quo is maintained.
27
Q

Feminism Evaluation: Nawal El Saadawi (1980)

A
  • She looks at the importance of religion in creating/perpetuating oppression.
  • She explains sexual aggression, prostitution etc. in terms of patriarchal dominance over women.
  • Oppressive practices are attributed to influence of Islam but she blames dominant patriarchal ideology which allows men to distort religion to serve their own interests.
  • Men use religion as an abuse of power.
28
Q

Feminism Evaluation: Helen Watson (1994)

A
  • Oppressive practices can be open to varied interpretations.
  • Veiling for non-Muslims is a sign of oppression however it is rarely viewed like this by Muslim women.
  • The hijab has advantages for women that can reduce/allow them to cope with male oppression. It is a means of gender and religious assertiveness.
29
Q

Feminism Evaluation

A
  • In 1992 women allowed to be ordained vicars and in 2015 Bishops - Church of England (It was the religious people who were against this, not the clergy)
  • Women find comfort in religion
  • Secularisation undermines everything.
  • Not all inherently patriarchal.
30
Q

Feminism Evaluation: Historical Interpretation

A
  • DALY (1978): Women have not always been subordinate. The female sex used to be regarded with respect as it was seen as being closer to nature.
  • ARMSTRONG: Women were considered as central to the spiritual quest and there were few effigies of men.
  • Dominance of Monotheism represented the death knell for females.
31
Q

Feminism Evaluation: Resistance to Oppression

A
  • Women can no longer be seen as passive. It shouldn’t be assumed that all religions are equally as oppressive.
  • HOLM & BOWKER (1994) suggest that some religious organisations develop exclusively for women.
  • Judaism has allowed female rabbis since 1972 and Quakers have never been oppressive to women.
32
Q

Weber: Overview

A

• Main argument is that Calvinism preceded capitalism which emerged in areas where this religion was influential. Many early entrepreneurs were Calvinists.

33
Q

Weber: Spirit of Capitalism

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  • Modern capitalism is based on the systematic, efficient, rational pursuit of profit for its own sake rather than consumption.
  • Weber argues this spirit has similarities with Calvinist beliefs and attitudes.
34
Q

Weber: Calvinist Beliefs (Predestination)

A
  • Calvinists longed for a better life after death.

* Theodicy of predestination: the notion that fate is already known by God.

35
Q

Weber: Calvinist Beliefs (Divine Transcendence)

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  • No human can claim to know God’s will.
  • Calvinists feel ‘unprecedented inner loneliness’ which combined with doctrine of predestination creating ‘salvation anxiety.’
36
Q

Weber: Calvinist Beliefs (Asceticism)

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• Abstinence, self-discipline and self-denial - no pleasure in life.

37
Q

Weber: Calvinist Beliefs (Idea of Vocation)

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  • Before Calvinism, religious vocation meant renouncing every day life. This is called ‘other-worldly asceticism.’
  • Calvin introduced ‘this-worldly asceticism’ - idea of a calling/vocation meant constant work in an occupation.
38
Q

Weber: Psychological Function

A
  • Wealth and success performed a psychological function - it allowed people to deal with salvation anxiety.
  • Wealth was a sign of God’s favour.
  • Calvinists adopted negative attitude towards pleasure and were driven by pursuit of profit. This led to the emergence of capitalist societies.
39
Q

Weber: Social Change

A
  • Religious beliefs can lead to social and economic change.
  • Weber regards religion as a catalyst creating the energy that lies behind pivotal change.
  • There are other factors that lead to capitalism however such as natural resources, trade etc.
40
Q

Weber: Evaluation

A
  • TAWNEY (1938): society was already capitalist before Calvinism. Many capitalists adopted Calvinism to legitimise their wealth.
  • Many Calvinist countries weren’t amongst the first to become capitalist.
  • Calvinists were excluded by law and turned to business and self employment so it wasn’t their beliefs that led to capitalism.
41
Q

Functionalism: Durkheim (Sacred & Profane)

A
  • All societies differentiate between sacred and profane and religion is based on this division.
  • What is regarded as sacred provokes powerful emotions and is surrounded by powerful taboos - sacredness bestowed.
  • A religion for Durkheim is a set of beliefs involving rituals/practices in relation to the sacred - rituals are collective.
  • Sacred symbols vary but unite believers to a single moral community.
42
Q

Functionalism: Durkheim (Totemism)

A
  • He studied the Arunta, an indigenous Australian tribe and their religion totemism to look at what sacred things represent.
  • Each clan in the society had a totem which was a symbol of their clan - rituals surrounding it represented power of the group, reinforcing solidarity.
  • He argues that God and society are one so when they worship God they are actually worshipping society.
43
Q

Functionalism: Durkheim (Collective Conscience)

A
  • Sacred symbols represent collective conscience - shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge.
  • Regular shared rituals reinforce collective conscience and maintain social integration.
  • Shared rituals bind individuals together reminding them of the power of society.
  • It makes people feel part of something greater than ourselves.
44
Q

Functionalism: Durkheim (Cognitive Functions)

A
  • Religion is a source of our intellectual capacities.
  • Religion is the origin of human thought and reason - provides us with basic concepts such as time, space and causation.
  • Provides shared knowledge - underpins cohesion and stability.
45
Q

Functionalism Evaluation

A
  • Religious pluralism undermines their argument.
  • Secularisation undermines their argument.
  • Religion causes conflict, it doesn’t promote togetherness.
  • Based on small scale studies.
46
Q

Functionalism: Civil Religion (Symbols of America)

A
  • Abraham Lincoln - almost a mythical figure, American dream.
  • Wagon

Sociology - Beliefs in Society (2 decks)

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