Theories

Question 1

Actor & Affected

Answer 1

In fiction, there tends to be a key difference between genders in who is presented as an actor vs. who is affected by an action. Men tend to be the actors, whereas women tend to be the affected.

Question 2

Marked Terms

Answer 2

The form of the word that stands out from the norm (eg. ‘hostess’ instead of ‘host’)

Question 3

Semantic Derogation

Answer 3

Sara Mills in the 1990s described terms for women that have more negative connotations than their male counterparts, etc ‘governor’ vs ‘governess’, ‘king’ vs ‘queen’, ‘master’ vs ‘mistress’, ‘bachenlor’ vs ‘spinster’, ‘lord’ vs ‘lady’

Question 4

Pronouns and Generic Terms

Answer 4

It is now not commonly acceptable to use male pronouns generically, and we are trying to move away from ‘the male as the norm’

Question 5

Trudgill (70s)

Answer 5

Men tend to use more non-standard pronunciation, and also claim to use non-standard forms more than they actually do

Question 6

Lakoff (60s)

Answer 6

Deficit approach; women’s language is inferior due to the process of socialisation. Factors of ‘women’s language’ include: specialist vocabulary centred around domestic chores, extra words for colours, weak expletives, empty adjectives, tag questions, more polite forms/euphemisms, hedges and intensifiers.

Question 7

Janet Holmes

Answer 7

Tag questions are used to aid discussion/appear polite rather than necessarily a weakness (challenges Lakoff)

Question 8

O’Barr and Atkins

Answer 8

Features of Lakoff’s research appear both in women and men of lower social class, therefore they adopted the term ‘powerless language’ over ‘women’s language’

Question 9

Zimmerman and West

Answer 9

Observed that more interruptions are made by men and that women have restricted linguistic freedom (dominance approach)

Question 10

Jennifer Coates

Answer 10

All female talk is essentially co-operative and designed to negotiate and support. Men and women have two different sub-cultures. (difference approach)

Question 11

Jane Pilkington

Answer 11

Women aim for positive politeness strategies, and men are less complimentary and supportive (difference approach)

Question 12

Koenraad Kuiper

Answer 12

Men pay less attention to saving face and use insults to suggest solidarity (difference approach)

Question 13

Deborah Tannen

Answer 13

Male-female talk is “cross-cultural”

Question 14

Overt vs Covert Prestige

Answer 14

Seeking overt prestige leads to use of standard English; covert prestige is the opposite

Question 15

Deborah Tannen & Differences

Answer 15

Men seek status/independence; women are interested in forming bonds; men give direct orders and don’t mind entering conflict; women give polite indirect orders to avoid conflict; men are interested in gaining factual information and solving problems; women want to show understanding by compromising and offering support rather than solving problems