Theories

Question 1

BIOLOGICAL : Jacob’s XYY (genetics)
What is it?

Answer 1

Chromosomal abnormalities. 1/1000 newborns are born with XYY (hyper-masculinity). 15/1000 in prison.

Men are naturally more aggressive than women, theory was that men with alter extra Y chromosome will be more aggressive and commit violent crimes.

Early studies show that XYY men are x10 more likely than XY men to be found in criminal populations.

Idea was that XYY men in large numbers would be found in prisons or hospitals.

Problem - XYY men tend to commit non violent crimes.

Question 2

What are the limitations of Jacob’s XYY?

Answer 2

-genetic abnormalities are widespread throughout the general population therefore doesn’t explain aggression

-THIELGAARD (1984) researched traits of the XYY men compared to XY men and found that aggression wasn’t associated with the XYY men.

Question 3

BIOLOGICAL : Twin studies (genetics)
What is it?

Answer 3

Dizygotic twins (develop from 2 eggs and share 1/2 genetic material) and monozygotic twins (develop from 1 egg and share all genetic material). Twins are generally raised in the same social environment (equal & controlled) so any greater similarities between identical twins shows evidence for a genetic link.

LANGE did a study with 30 pairs of twins (17dz and 13mz). At least one of each pair commuted a crime (10/13mz= criminals and 2/17dz=criminals).

The chance of one twin taking part in criminal behaviour when the other twin was is 50% in mz and 20% in dz.

Question 4

What are the limitations for Twin studies?

Answer 4

-small sample

-early study like LANGE lack validity and were inadequately controlled

-can’t discount nurture if they were brought up in the same environment

-Monozygotic twins are usually treated more similar than dizygotic twins

Question 5

BIOLOGICAL: Adoption studies (genetics)
What is it?

Answer 5

The aim is to separate the impact of environment (adopted parents) from the influence of inheritance (biological parents) and figuring out if someone commits crime based on upbringing (nurture) or genes (nature). And the behaviour of the adopted child is compared to the effects of their adopted and biological parents.

Research shows adoptee with a biological parent who is a criminal is more likely to commit crimes (more likely in boys).

Adopted individuals who were born to imprisoned female offenders were likely to commit crimes as an adult.

Question 6

What are the limitations of Adoption studies?

Answer 6

-The age of adoption may affect whether adopted children have been influenced by biological parents/adopted parents

-information about biological parents isn’t always available

-the adoption process isn’t random, children are often placed with similar families

Question 7

BIOLOGICAL : Lombroso’s theory (physiological)
What is it?

Answer 7

LOMBROSO stated that criminals are a separate species and they’re a throw back to an earlier stage of evolution. He studied 4000 Italian criminals and 400 Italian criminal skulls. He called the abnormalities the ‘stigmata’.

He said that several ‘atavistic’ characteristics are what make clear signs that someone is a criminal (ape like, large ears, big hands, long arms, excessive wrinkles, monobrow, hawk like noses, large jaw, plump lips).

He stated that tattoos were seen as markings of a born criminal because it shows an insensitivity to pain.

Question 8

What are the limitations of Lombroso’s theory?

Answer 8

-far too simplistic theory

-no control group

-not everyone with atavistic features are criminal

-scientific racism, DELISI (2012) indicate many atavistic features are specific to people of African decent

-culture bias

Question 9

BIOLOGICAL : Sheldon’s theory (physiological)
What is it?

Answer 9

SHELDON argues that criminal behaviour links to physical form. He came up with 3 different body types:

-endomorph (fat and soft) = sociable, relaxed, funny
-ectomorph (skinny and fragile) = socially anxious, private, withdrawn
-mesomorph (muscular and hard) = dominant, aggressive, adventurous

He said that mesomorphs are more likely to be criminals because of their high testosterone levels so they have more aggression.

He studied photos of 4000 men and rated them on a scale of 1-7 on their resemblance to mesomorph. He had a control group of 200 college student to compare to. GLUECK & GLUECK found that 60% of offenders in their study were mesomorphs.

Question 10

What are the limitations of Sheldon’s theory?

Answer 10

-cannot generalise

-other body types can also be criminals (doesn’t explain how end and eco body types can be criminals)

-a persons body type isn’t fixed, can change throughot their life

-are mesomorphs targeted for crime/deviance? (self-fulfilling prophecy)

-gender bias

-not much was known about the criminal histories of the control group

Question 11

BIOLOGICAL : Brain chemistry
What is it?

Answer 11

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter produced by the brain and regulates mood, it’s thought to influence how impulsive a person is. Research into low serotonin levels and criminal behaviour has been taken out.

Serotonin can be influenced by our diet (tryptophan is found in food which is what boots serotonin). Eggs, soy products, carbs.

In FINLAND, violent offenders and impulsive fire-starters had lower serotonin levels, showing that this can be linked to more sever forms of antisocial behaviour.

People who take large amounts of steroids (often taken to increase muscle growth and testosterone levels) can become extremely violent.

HORACE WILLIAMS, American body builder, beat a man to death after taking x2000 the recommended dosage of steroids.

Question 12

BIOLOGICAL : brain structure
What is it?

Answer 12

PHINEAS GAGE was working on a train track and a 3ft metal pole went through his pre-frontal lobe. He turned from a pleasant calm person to (after his recovery) agitated, aggressive and “just not Gage”.

Question 13

IDIVIDUALISTIC : Sigmund Frued (psychodynamic)
What is it?

Answer 13

He believed that the best way to understand behaviour is to examine early childhood experiences and that criminality is linked to guilt. Freud stated that our mind works in a way where the unconscious mind (we cant see it) controls our behaviour.

He stated that our PSYCHE (personality) has 3 parts:

-ID = desires/pleasures/control our selfish urges. Wants instant gratification and represents basic needs, found in deep unconscious of the brain.
-EGO = reality/rational control to make decisions to delay the id’s urges. Acts as a mediator between id and superego.
-SUPEREGO = knows what’s socially acceptable/understands morals/conscience (restricts us from doing bad). Tells us what’s right or wrong. Develops at around 5 years old. Acts as a parent and punishes the ego with anxiety when an immoral act is contemplated and guilt if its carried out.

He stated that this is determined in the first 5 years of life (root of offending is also found at this period, especially relationship between a developing child and parents). To be healthy you need a balance of all parts, if not equal its a disturbed personality which can lead to criminal behaviour, 3 reasons as to why:

-WEAK SUPEREGO : thought to develop through the result of abnormal relationships with family. This results in a person not having worries about taking part in antisocial behaviour. Don’t really see criminal acts as wrong, happy to act in a way that will satisfy id.

-DEVIANT SUPEREGO : child may develop a superego in a normal way but the superego itself may have deviant values. The superego is meant to punish behaviours that the same sex parent would find unacceptable. So, if a son was raised normally but had a criminal father, they may not react to crime in a normal way, may see it as acceptable/normal.

-STRONG SUPEREGO : make someone anxious and guilty a lot of the time as every time they acted on their id’s desires (no matter how small) they would punish them for it. This can result in a person committing crimes in order to get caught and punished, to ease the guilt that is forced onto them by the strong superego. May also prevent a person from pressing antisocial desires that build up (normally would express desires harmlessly through defence mechanisms, e.g. letting out anger in sports). Superego would prevent this from happening, aggression and desires can build up over time and overwhelm the ego - enough to make these expressed suddenly and violently (e.g. murder/rape).

pointed out the importance of of childhood experiences and adolescence when it comes to offending. Pointed many researchers in useful directions when it comes to studying crime.

Question 14

What are the limitations of psychodynamic theories?

Answer 14

-not scientific (we cant see and therefore study the unconscious mind - cant prove it exists)

-only explain behaviour after it happens

-highly subjective, two different researchers can draw very different conclusions

-studies can be very time-consuming

Question 15

INDIVIDUALISTIC : Bowlby’s ‘affectionless psychopath’ (psychodynamic)
What is it?

Answer 15

He stated that the ability to form meaningful social relationships in adulthood relied on a close, warm and continuous relationship with the mother in the first few years (since it acts as and example for all future relationships). Disruption could damage the persons ability to relate to others.

Early ‘maternal deprivation’ was related to later criminal behaviour.

In his study 44 thieves reported that 39% of a group of young criminals have experienced disruption to their attachments with their mother, compared to 5% of non-criminal group.

Question 16

What are the limitations of Bowlby’s ‘affectionless psychopath’?

Answer 16

-small sample size (unrepresentative)

-regarded to have overestimated the impact of early life experiences on later criminal offences

Question 17

INDIVIDUALISTIC : Megargee’s ‘over controlled’ violent offender (psychodynamic)
What is it?

Answer 17

Documented a series of cases of violence carried out by people who were regarded as passive and harmless.

E.g. an 11 year old boy who stabbed his brother 34 times, he was described as polite with no history of aggression.

He stated that they represented a small group of violent offenders whose shared characteristic is an inability to express their anger in a normal way, eventually ’explode’ and release all their anger and aggression at once.

BLACKBURN (1971) found that people convicted of extremely violent assaults tended to have fewer previous convictions and scored lower on measures of aggressions than those convicted of moderately violent assaults.

Question 18

What are the limitations of Megargee’s ‘over controlled’ violent offender?

Answer 18

-doesn’t separate whether such offenders don’t experience anger normally or whether they experience it but don’t express it.

Question 19

INDIVIDUALISTIC: Eysenck (psychological)
What is it?

Answer 19

Eysenck believed that certain personality types are more likely to commit crime because they crave excitement but are slow to learn that
crime has bad consequences.

He based this on analysis to response of a personality questionnaire (which he carried out on 700 soldiers who were being treated for neurotic disorders at the hospital where he worked).

Eysenck argued that the difference between people’s personalities could be put into three dimensions, which all had different personality traits.

-extroversion/introversion (E/I)
-neuroticism/stability (N/S)
-psychoticism (P)

People with high E scores are lively and attention seeking (can get bored very easily).
People with high N scores are anxious and irrational (high degree of instability).
Where N is low, a person is stable.
People with high P scores are aggressive, cold, selfish and antisocial.

He predicted that people with ENP personalities are more likely to offend (difficult to learn to control their immature impulses - criminals are more likely to be impulsive, thrill-seeking and unable to accept and understand the rules of society).

His theory suggests that criminal tendencies are detectable in childhood and that it may be
possible to put interventions in place to reduce criminal behaviour.

Question 20

What are the limitations of Eysenck’s theory?

Answer 20

-research relies heavily on him and his colleagues (bias)

-no consistency in people’s behaviour (changes all the time)

-tells us traits of a criminal, not why they commit the crime.

Question 21

INDIVIDUALISTIC : kohlberg’s study on moral development
What is it?

Answer 21

Heinz and his wife.

LEVEL 1 - pre conventional morality (mainly age 9 and under)
We don’t have personal morals, it’s shaped by adults and the consequences of following/breaking their rules.

-STAGE 1: obedience and punishment-
child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is
punished, they must have done wrong.

-STAGE 2: individualism and exchange-
children recognise that there is not just one right view that is told
by those in authority (different people have different viewpoints)

LEVEL 2 - conventional morality
conventional level (most teens and adults), begin to adopt the moral
standards of respectable adult role models (authority is understood but not questioned).

-STAGE 3: good interpersonal relationships-
Good in order to be seen as being a good person by others.

-STAGE 4 : maintaining social order-
aware of the wider rules of society so obeys the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.

LEVEL 3 - post conventional morality
moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. only 10/15% are capable of stages 5/6.

-STAGE 5 : social contract and individual rights-
person becomes aware that laws/rules exist for the greater good, there’s times they will work against interest of people.

-STAGE 6 : universal principles-
developed their own set of moral guidelines (may/not fit the law), principles apply to everyone. The person is ready to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society and having to pay the consequences for that.

Question 22

What are the limitations of Kohlberg’s study?

Answer 22

-the dilemmas aren’t real (heinz study)

-biased sample (all male sample, female view might have been very different)

-we don’t definitely know if there are 3 stages of development

Question 23

INDIVIDUALISTIC : bandura’s bobo doll study (learning)
What is it?

Answer 23

Bandura believes that people learn by watching the behaviour of others. If behaviour they watch is rewarded/punished they’ll either accept/reject those behaviours.

He tested 72 children in nursery (36 boys and 36 girls aged between 3-6).
-Aggressive model (male/female): shown to 24 children (attacked bobo doll)
-Non aggressive model: shown to 24 children (played in a quiet manner to bobo doll for 10 minutes)
-no model: shown to 24 children (12 boys, 12 girls - control group)

RESULTS :
This study showed that criminal
behaviour can be learnt from those around us (observational learning).

-SUTHERLAND-
Supports this theory. States people learn attitudes from associations with others (if more favourable attitudes about crime are learned as opposed to negatives, these people can see crime as acceptable). Learn methods of how to commits crime from those around them (this theory accounts for the high reoffending rate). In prisons criminals learn from those around them and become more experienced in certain criminal techniques/offences (prisons=‘universities of crime’).

-OSBORN AND WEST-
Supports this theory. Considered sons of criminal fathers/no criminal fathers. Father has a criminal conviction= 40% of sons also attained one by 18. Father has no criminal conviction=13% of sons had a criminal conviction. Shows criminal behaviour can be learnt/imitated.

Question 24

What are the limitations of Bandura’s Bobo doll study?

Answer 24

-CUMBERBATCH found that children who hadn’t played with bobo doll before were x5 more likely to imitate aggressive behaviour (claims novelty value of doll makes it more likely for children to imitate the behaviour)

-behaviours are measured almost immediately (can’t discover if a single has long term effects)

-small study

-unethical (long term effects?)

Question 25

SOCIOLOGICAL : functionalism DURKHEIM (structural)
What is it?

Answer 25

DURKHEIM saw crime as a healthy, important and inevitable part of society.

-PROMOTING SOCIAL SOLIDARITY:-
Sense of cohesion felt in society. Crime/deviance brings people together in a shared outrage/shock over a crime/scandal which leads to people expressing a ‘public temper’.
In society, members must all share the same set of values (right/wrong) this is a collective conscience. This leads to a community controlling itself (sanctions to anyone who steps out of line knows it’s wrong).

-BOUNDARY MAINTENANCE AND THE PROMOTION OF SOCIAL CHANGE:-
Members of any society must learn the boundaries of what’s acceptable behaviour. Crime/deviance aids this in showing what the boundaries of right and wrong are (publicly punishing those who stray beyond boundaries - identified and punished by agencies of social control).

-ANOMIE:-
DURKHEIM stated that a small amount of crime/deviance prevents anomie (as long as it’s punished). If a society allows too much crime/deviance without punishment or if value consensus breaks down then this can result in a breakdown of social order and lead to the state of anomie (threatens stability of society). May lead to increased deviant behaviour. May occur if: -sudden change in government (revolution)
-disaster that leads to destruction of order (9/11)
-major economic upheaval (recession)

-‘SAFETY VALVE’:-
DAVIS believes that deviance can function as a ‘safety valve’ - allowing an individual/group to ‘let off steam’ to prevent worse deviance/crime. DAVIS studied prostitution and stated that the goals of sexual behaviour in men isn’t naturally social, the morally acceptable expression of sexuality is constricted to family(promote raising kids). Leads to conflict for men who have sexual urges (leads to promiscuity/rape). So prostitution=‘safe’ outlet for these sexual urges.

Question 26

What are the limitations of functionalism (DURKHEIM)?

Answer 26

-if we all share a value consensus why do some people break the law?

-doesn’t explain why crime/deviance happens (and some more than others)

-doesn’t explain why some people are deviant in other ways

Question 27

SOCIOLOGICAL : Merton’s strain theory (structural)
What is it?

Answer 27

Argues that there are clear goals in any social structure and there are clear means to achieve these goals.

Crime/deviance occurs when the goals are emphasised much more than the acceptable means (working). If alternative means (crime) to achieve the goals shaft to become acceptable/preferred then ANOMIE will occur (‘strain towards anomie’ - goal becomes more important than the means).

AMERICAN CULTURE - goal of success/money has become the root of society and Americans constantly feel the pressure to find ways to make more money. (MERTON says there not that much emphasis on the legitimate ways to achieve success but the goal itself).

-MODES OF ADAPTION-

CONFORMITY: most common response to society’s goals. Working hard at school/job to earn money in legitimate ways.

INNOVATION: individual has goal but doesn’t accept means to achieve it. Middle class people prepared to ‘bend’ the rules to make more money.

RITUALISM: some people don’t strive for greta wealth, so they scale down their aspirations. (Monks/nuns)

RETREATISM: those who struggle to achieve success end up dropping out of society who judge them. Not working/participating in normal life ally all. Self-destructive deviant behaviour.

REBELLION: reject society’s goals and replace them with alternatives (joining groups which seek a different type of society)

Question 28

What are the limitations of Merton’s strain theory?

Answer 28

-stated that the goal for financial success is universal (many other goals like family/love/other reasons to display deviant behaviour)

-person may fall into more than one category of ‘modes of adaptation’.

-MERTON sees deviant responses to society as individual (fails to take into consideration that deviancy can be communal)

Question 29

SOCIOLOGICAL : Marxist theory (structural)
What is it?

Answer 29

Marxism argues that for much of human history the power in society is focused within a small group of people - ruling class (/bourgeoisie) who control the economic system. So they can exploit (for their own benefit) the labour of working class who have no choice but to work for them. This antagonism builds up - CLASS CONFLICT. States that crime is a result of poor conditions in a community.

Marxists focus on IDEOLOGY (system of ideas and beliefs):
-believe the ideology in society suits the powerful
-makes sure powerless (working class) stays in their place.

CAPITALIST IDEALOGY:
-Everyone accepts it and doesn’t question if it is true (pushed in society and seen as a fact)
-how powerful upper classes control lower working classes (through FORMAL SOCIAL CONTROL - family, religion, education, media)
-Those who are ‘deviant’ are punished
-believes this divides us (scares us which makes us behave)

DIFFERENT SOCIAL CLASSES ARE POLICED DIFFERENTLY:
-working class heavily policed (raising the chances of their crimes being detected)
-Marxists also state that governments construct their own statistics (suit their purposes of making the working class look like they commit more crimes)
-42% of stats presented by the government are false and misleading
-lots of focus on violent crimes/street crimes (committed by less powerful)
-little attention to white collar crimes (committed by rich and powerful in the world of work)

ALIENATION:
-concept used by Marxists to describe a sense of powerlessness, lack of control and disconnectedness felt in the working class (through exploitation at work and capitalism - drive people to commit crime)

marxists state that crime is a RATIONAL response to a situation someone is in (capitalism causes inequality which causes crimes to be committed)

NEO-MARXISTS:
-capitalism makes people choose to be criminal (marxism - forces people)

Question 30

What are the limitations of marxism?

Answer 30

-Accused of being too extreme and farfetched

-ignores other non-class inequalities (gender/ethnicity)

-Not all capitalist societies have high crime rates (Japan)

• many white collar criminals that have been caught and sentenced in the past

-laws in society that do protect all (not just rich and powerful)

-Most people in society obey laws, no matter their social class (value consensus)

Question 31

SOCIOLOGICAL : left/right realism (realist)
What is it?

Answer 31

REALISTS tend to accept the typical criminal shown in police recorded crime figures (reflect real crimes). They challenge some of the traditional theories for being too ‘idealistic’ and offering no practical solutions to address crime.​

LEFT : impact of society and inequalities someone faces
-think we need to consider white-collar crime and global crime as well
-focus on social injustice and inequalities (created by capitalism)
-Some people are motivated by consumerism and materialism (turn to crime to make up the shortfall)
-believe what is actually needed is gradual change and solutions to the problem of crime
=explores role of victim
=recognises multiple causes of crime
=doesn’t glorify/criticise police

RIGHT : socialisation and norms/values of the offender
-focus on street crime
-don’t believe external factors cause crime (e.g. economics)
-put the blame on the individuals (focus on solutions to control people)
-believe in getting tough on crime
=Helped produce/shape government’s research into crime
=more practical approach to tackling crime (as opposed to marxism)
=FLOOD-PAGE ET AL, supports view of the decline of the family (Children, especially boys, from single parents/step-families were more likely to offend than children with two parents)

CHARLES MURRAY (leading right realist) stated that everyone is tempted to commit crime, but the amount of social bonds prevent us (‘underclass’)

BROKEN WINDOWS THEORY :
WILSON and KELLING
-importance of disorder (broken windows) that is generating more serious crime (not directly linked)
-DISORDER leads to increased FEAR and WITHDRAWAL from residents, allows more serious crime to move in (because of the lack of informal social control)
-POLICE can play a key role in disrupting this process (focus in on disorder and less serious crime sin neighbourhoods, reduce fear/withdrawal)/ PROMOTING higher levels of informal social control

Question 32

What are the limitations of left/right realism?

Answer 32

RIGHT:
-Accepts crime stats as realistic​
-Ignores wider causes of crime (poverty)
-Ignores increasing gap between rich and poor, creating resentment (relative deprivation)

LEFT:
-doesn’t explain why everyone in relative deprivation fails to turn to crime​
-mixture of other theories
-Fails to address white collar crime​

Question 33

SOCIOLOGICAL : interactionalism, BECKER - labelling (interactionalist)
What is it?

Answer 33

MASTER STATUS AND SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY:
argued labelling someone can have serious effects (can become a ‘master status’). People will respond to the person using this label and link any behaviour to this label (deviant identity will control them) - associating with this label = SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY

When a person is labelled over and over, they are likely to take on board this label (affect their self-concept). They start to live up to this label (making decisions based on that deviant view). Once someone is given a master status it is difficult to get away from it (feel isolated or judged differently), may find it difficult to conform to society’s rules (e.g. holding down a job). ‘can lead to a ‘DEVIANT CAREER’ which may start if someone joins a deviant subculture or group. The person starts to see themselves as deviant and this ‘DEVIANT IDENTITY’.

IMPACT OF PUBLIC LABELLING:
behaviour only becomes deviant when it has been defined/labelled as such, impact of labelling and can often lead to stereotyping. LEMERT - ‘society’s reaction to behaviour is more significant than the behaviour itself’.

-‘PRIMARY DEVIANCE’ refers to acts which are not publicly labelled, seen as acceptable (but if the deviant behaviour attracts negative social reactions, will affect the individual)
-‘SECONDARY DEVIANCE’ deviant behaviour which is committed as an expression of someone’s idea of themselves (usually occurs after numerous penalties have been given for primary deviance)
-media contributes towards labelling as they ‘demonise’ people who have been socially labelled as deviant (creates moral panic) = highlights negative role of media

=MALINOWSKI - studied Trobriand Islands (describes an incident which occurred). Incest between cousins -deviant, but actually quite common (people turned a blind eye).
-when one man had a relationship with his cousin, publicly accused, caused uproar, he committed suicide

BECKER said it was only when a public accusation was made that the behaviour became a serious issue.

Question 34

What are the limitations of interactionalism?

Answer 34

-DETERMINISTIC (saying you don’t have free will/cant control your actions) so doesn’t account for people who don’t live up to the label, there’s a role of free will

-allows offenders to play off a ‘victim status’ (can use typifications to their advantage, ‘its not my fault, xyz’)

-doesnt account for ‘primary deviance’ (occurs before labels) offences

-suggests labels on groups, but there’s no cause and affect to why certain groups are so marginalised compared to others