Theories Flashcards
FUNCTIONALISM
Macro approach
Consensus theory
Value consensus
Collective consciousness
Social solidarity
Anomie
Dysfunction
Organic change
Positivism
Socialisation
Functional prerequisites
Emile DURKHEIM
Organic analogy–> compared society to a human body that adapts to its environment and is comprised of component parts, each having a role in keeping it alive==> all organs act as institutes needed for the body/ society to function
- Positivist research–> suicide study
Talcott PARSONS
Aimed to provide a theoretical framework that combined the ideas of Durkheim with the systematic attempt to understand the structures of societies and how they function.
- identified 4 basic needs (functional prerequisites) that all societies have to satisfy:(GAIL)
1)Goal attainment (political function)- societies must develop ways of making decisions. human societies range from dictatorships to democratic.
2)Adaptation (economic function)-every society must provide an adequate standard of life for the survival of the members.
3)Integration (social harmony)- each institute in society develops in response to particular functions. However, there is no guarantee that the institutes will not develop elements that will conflict.
4)Latency (individual beliefs and values)- deals with individuals and how they cope. it is divided into two areas.
- pattern maintenance- the problem faced by people when conflicting demands are made of them–>issue of identity
-tension management- a society needs to motivate people to continue to belong to society and not leave/oppose it.
=each institute has certain societal roles, because of the existence of the roles and shared roles , society generally runs smoothly. there is a generally agreement on what values are good or bad –> value consensus
Social evolution and differentiation (Parsons)
-All societies share the same functional prerequisites, they do not stays static.–> Parsons believed that as societies change they can retain a degree of balance in order to continue to function effectively.==> one part of the social structure changes the other parts adapt to fit around it =>Moving equilibrium
as they develop/ evolve societies tend to become more effective and efficient at raising living standards and moving to meet the needs of their members. this involves a change in cultural values or what parsons calles ‘pattern variables’. there are two sets of pattern variables:
1)pattern A- simpler/pre-modern societies=based on more emotional ties–> ascription, diffuseness, particularism, affectivity, collective orientation
2)pattern B- more modern societies= based on more rationality and efficiency–> achievement, specificity, universalism, affective neutrality, self-orientation
Evaluation
Merton- internal criticisms
-TOO SIMPLISTIC- not all ‘functions’ within society are deliberate=> there are two categories of function:
1)Manifest function= functions that have been considered and are deliberate.
2)latent function= something that happens as a bi-product of the manifest/ deliberate function
-NOT EVERY PART OF SOCIETY IS INDISPENSABLE-there are parts of society that could be replaced with something else that could do the job just as well = functional alternatives
-THERE IS NO ‘FUNCTIONAL UNITY’- Parsons assumed that all parts of society are connected –> merton= modern societies are more complex, parts are not necessarily connected- functional autonomy
-THERE IS NO ‘UNIVERSAL FUNCTIONALISM’- Parson assumes that everything in society performs a positive function for society as a whole- merton= some things may be functional for some groups but dysfunctional for others.
External criticisms:
-LOGICAL CRITICISMS- Teleology- things exist because of their effect or function-Functionalists claim family exists because children need to be socialised- existence in terms of effect ==> A real explanation identifies a cause (cause comes before an effect)
Functionalism→the explanation of the existence of something is put in terms of something else (the effect)
Functionalism= unscientific→not falsifiable
→ functionalist see deviance as both dysfunctional and functional => makes it not falsifiable
-CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE CRITICISMS -Marxist criticism of functionalism = they have an inability to explain conflict and change → arises partly due to the organic analogy => organisms are relatively stable and harmonious==> marxist= society isn’t harmonious→ it’s based on exploitation and class division.
marxist=> stability is due to the ruling class being able to prevent change → false class consciousness
Conflict theorists → functionalism= a conservative ideology legitimating the status quo → focuses on harmony and stability ignoring conflict and change.
Functionalism legitimates the privileged position of a powerful group which would lose from any fundamental changes
-ACTION PERSPECTIVE CRITICISMS- Denis WRONG= functionalism =deterministic-> individuals have no free will or choice- they act in accordance with social institutions. Action approach- individuals create society via their interactions.
-POSTMODERNIST CRITICISMS- functionalism assumes society is stable and orderly- doesn’t account for the diversity and instability of today’s postmodern society
functionalism= metanarrative
postmodernism= today’s society is increasingly fragmented
MARXISM
Bourgeoisie
Proletariat
Property
Epochs
Ideology
Alienation
Economic base
Superstructure
Mode of production
Means of production
Polarisation
Pauperisation
Proletarianisation
Conflict
Capitalism
Structural
Communism
False consciousness
Dual consciousness
Exploitation
Hegemony
Ideological state apparatus
Repressive state apparatus
Traditional marxism
KARL MARX
-Described the development of society using his 5 epochs (Primitive Communism, Slavery, Feudalism, Capitalism and communism). in each of these there is a particular mode of production, e.g. in primitive communism the mode of production was hunting and gathering, no social class- in the other epochs (not communism) the mode of productions are based on exploitation.
-Classes develop because some people are able to gain ownership and control over the means of production–> the means of production are all those things needed to produce goods goods and the wealth that comes with it. ==> in a capitalist society one class controls the means of production while the other class that does not is forced to work for them since they don’t have the means to create wealth themselves.
- to marxist the foundation of society is an economic base- this consists of the means of production and the class system.
-The means of production are always advancing, becoming more complex and capable of producing greater wealth –> however, the values of the ruling class tend to develop more slowly
- in between the bourgeoisie and proletariat there are the petite bourgeoisie- self employed and small businesses- they have enough capital to have their own business but not enough to employ or exploit others- at least on a large scale–> they find it hard to compete with the ruling class and are often forced out of business and have to become wageworkers (proletariat) = PROLETARIANISATION
-the bourgeoisie promote self beneficial ideologies that help them to maintain their power and wealth- promote inequalities
-The majority of the population accept these inequalities due to the way that dominant institutions, justify the prevailing of economic and social situations= false class consciousness.
- Marx argued that over time capitalism will enter periods of crisis that will progressively get worse. this could causes a range of things- driving down of wages to increase profit making the working class poorer = pauperisation.
Criticisms of marx
> Economic determinism -A move towards crisis hasn’t occurred. Communists systems have largely been replaced by capitalist ones, or at least adopted many of their ideas.
Humans also have free will
Ideas can cause change - not just economics
> Polarisation (lack of revolution)- Although there is huge inequality the expansion of the middle class is in conflict with Marx’s prediction that this group would disappear
> Outdated -Since Marx’s death capitalism changed a lot and incorporated a range of benefits for populations such as health care, pensions and housing support.
> Too simplistic-ignores other factors such as gender and ethnicity
Two class model - there is a range within class groups
Structural neo-marxism
ALTHUSSER
Capitalistic society is made up of three interlocking elements:
1)The economic system-Producing all material goods
2)The political system-Organising society
3)The ideological system- Providing all ideas and beliefs
-The economic system has ultimate control, but the political and ideological have significant degrees of independence/autonomy - in reality this means that politics and culture develop in response to many different forces- not just economic ones. =Relative autonomy
–>suggests that society is more complex.
-the state is composed to two elements- both work for the benefit of capitalism:
1) repressive state apparatus
2) ideological state apparatus
Humanistic neo-marxism
GRAMSCI
-placed less emphasis on economics and social structure and more on choice/agency of members of different classes.
-conventional marxism underestimated both the room to manoeuvre possessed by the state in capitalism and the ability of the proletariat to resist the ruling class power.–> the state could not simply impose its will it had to win consent from large sections of the population to cement its dominance and maintain control. it could retain political and ideological dominance =hegemony -> if it made some concessions to the proletariat through introducing welfare or safety and health rule to protect workers.
- proletariat were never completely taken by ruling class ideology–> institutions could fool the proletariat to some extent into accepting capitalism, but day-to-day exploitation causeses them to be critical of capitalism too= dual consciousness= partly influenced by capitalism ideology but also aware of exploitation
Organic intellectuals - Special individuals who give a voice to those that need it or inspire a social class to action.
FEMINISM
Structural
Both macro and micro approaches
Conflict theory
Patriarchy
Malestream sociology
Sexism
Waves of feminism
Radical
Liberal
Marxist
Intersectional
Postmodern
Dual system feminism
Male dominance
Oppression
Radical feminism
-Society IS patriarchal and women ARE exploited by men.
-Patriarchy is universal, derived from women’s ability to bear children.
-Women’s main enemy are men. All men benefit from patriarchy.
-Lobbying for legal change is unlikely to bring about equality.
-Some radical feminists advocate Separationism, collective action and political lesbianism, as the only way to achieve equality.
-This is to create a new culture of female independence, free from patriarchy.
-Greer argues for the creation of ‘matrilocal’ households, as an alternative to the heterosexual family.
Evaluation:
+Raises the profile of what has previously been considered private issues.
+Exposes the social construction of gender and gender roles.
-Uses violence to achieve its aims. Makes wider feminism seem silly and men hating.
-ignores the element of choice within a relationship.
-Jenny Sommerville: Ignores the progress that has been made.
Liberal feminism
> Liberalism is the idea that all humans should have equality, rights and freedom.
Liberal feminists believe that, as humans, women should have the same rights and freedoms as men.
They believe in reformism, that equality can be achieved by gradual reforms and changes to laws and policies.
Anne Oakley: A Study on Housework 1974
Sue Sharpe: How Girls learn to be Women 1994
Liberal feminists believe that there need to be changes in the certain areas in order the aid the path to equality and these changes should be achieved through reform and education.
CHANGES TO LAWS, ATTITUDES & POLICIES:
Family- More women are pursuing careers–>There is a more equal split in household tasks and childcare, but still more to be done
Workplace- Challenge institutional sexism–> Challenge the ‘glass ceiling’
Law-Equal pay act–>Anti-discrimination laws–> Better care for victims of sexual crimes
Social policies- More work to be done on maternity/paternity leave–>Nursery vouchers
Education-Expectations have changed but more work to be done, for example women in science and engineering
Evaluation:
+Shows that gender inequality and discrimination can be overcome without violence.
+Shows that gender differences are socially constructed.
+Has had important influences on social policy.
-Ignores the need for revolutionary action.
-Deals with the symptoms of oppression not the causes
-Can be criticised for being overly optimistic.
Marxist feminism
> Capitalism is patriarchal and the cause of women’s oppression.
Women create and socialise the next generation of workers.
Women act as a reserve labour force.
Women absorb men’s frustrations at their own oppression.
Michelé Bartlett:
In a capitalist system, women were forced to rely on the men during the late stages of pregnancy and after giving birth.
The patriarchal nuclear family is portrayed as the only place in which women can attain fulfillment.
Once capitalism is overthrown the ideology of familism will follow allowing for equality.
Evaluation:
+Shows the importance of economic production in all areas of social life.
+Shows greater understanding of the structural causes of women’s oppression.
-Women are still oppressed in non capitalist societies.
-Doesn’t explain why women perform unpaid domestic labour and not men.
-Lack of emphasis of how man not capitalism oppress women.
Intersectional feminism
> Do not see women as a single homogenous group who all share the same issues and problems.
> Other feminisms are essentialist and have created a false universality based around white western middle class women.
Judith Butler:
>White middle class women dominate the feminist movement and falsely claim a universality of women’s experience.
>Discourses: A way of seeing, thinking, or speaking about something
>Our identities are constituted through many different discourses.
>Allows discussion and analysis of different forms of oppression.
Evaluation:
+Allows for the analysis of different forms of oppression.
+Allows for different forms of resistance and struggles to achieve equality.
-Having so many sub groups weakens the feminist movement.
-Segal: abandons any notion of objective social structures.
