Theoretical Syntax Flashcards
Learn for in class assessment
Opposites (Contrasting)
The creation of opposites through syntactic structures
e.g He wanted a baby boy, while she wanted a girl – Opposite between baby boy and baby girl.
Words may not be directly opposite but used with each other syntactically to achieve something in a sentence
e.g Smart may have the brains but stupid has the balls – Opposites between smart and stupid but reversed by brains and balls (unconventional opposites). This implies that stupid people are confident and smart people are perhaps not.
Foregrounding
The unusual use of syntax to highlight certain parts of a text.
We see this a lot in advertising, as there is not as much room for written language in advertising. Foregrounding can be described as allowing language to stand out from other parts of language
Deviation (What you can do with foregrounding)
Breaking the rules of syntactic structure
e.g ‘they were hitting’. This is incomplete, with the sentence ending in the dynamic verb ‘hitting’. Omission of a noun phrase such as ‘the ball’ which would make it not syntactically deviant e.g they were hitting the ball.
Parallelism
The repetition of syntactic structure, usually for some sort of effect
e.g royal navy advert
What is a Clause made up of?
NP (Aux+) VP
What is a Noun Phrase made up of?
(D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) (SubC)
What is an Adverb Phrase made up of?
(AdvP+) Adv
What is a Verb Phrase made up of?
(AdvP+) V (NP+) (AdvP+) (PP+) (AdvP+)
What is an Adjective Phrase made up of?
(AdvP) Adj
What is a Prepositional Phrase made up of?
(AdvP) P (NP)
Complex Sentence
Any sentence which contains multiple clauses
Coordination
Two or more clauses are joined together in a sentence
Subordination
A clause is contained within a larger clause and they come in 4 types: Content, Relative, Coordinating, Non-Finite
Content Clause
Tell us more about the content of something in a higher clause. Functions as a complement meaning it completes meaning. Additionally, they tend to complement a head verb, but this is not always the case.
e.g - I’m happy (that Liverpool are top of the table)
e.g 2 - (That united will win the league) is doubtful
Relative Clauses
They don’t tend to look complete in the sentence. Specify head nouns. Have different (but similar forms) - who/which, that or a bare-relative. Have a single function – to modify a head noun.
e.g - I’ve never met a person [who didn’t love Syntax]
e.g 2 - Oystercatchers are the birds [that look jovial]
e.g 3 - Oasis are the band […all Mancunians love]
Comparative Clause
Make a comparison – they state the secondary term of the comparison. They can also be reduced in a way that other SubC cannot. Additionally, they take particular forms
e.g Adverb + as + adjective + as-comparative clause. E.g They are nearly as clever as they are charming
e.g Adjective + as-comparative clauses e.g They shine as bright as the stars do
e.g Like + comparative clause – Semantics doesn’t excite me like syntax always does.
Non-Finite Clauses
Not marked for tense. NFCs have a feeling of ‘thingness’ - we can see this in how they can function as subject in a clause. The verb will either be an infinitive or a gerund.
Infinitive - The lecturer promised [to mark the essays fairly]
Gerund (Typically end in ‘ing’) - She sat at the desk [marking]
Form
What a phrase can consist of
Function
What a phrase can do within a clause
Binding Theory
A way of looking at why certain NP’s are not allowed in certain contexts
C-Commanding
The relationship between constituents (nodes) within a Syntax tree
Types of Noun Phrases
Pronouns - They, She, He, It
Anaphors - Can be called reflexive. Themselves, Herself, Himself, Itself
R-Expressions - Detailed NP’s e.g The beleaguered Prime Minister
Three Principles for NP’s (Binding Theory)
Principle A - An anaphor must be bound to its binding domain
Principle B - A pronoun must be free in its binding domain
Principle C - An r expression must be free
Polarity Items
A group of words and phrases that can only occur in specific contexts e.g any and some
Negative Polarity Item
A word which can only occur in a negative environment.
Must be licenced by a negator
Positive Polarity Item
A word can only occur in a positive context e.g somewhat
Textual Function
We communicate meaning through language (Written and Spoken)
Conceptual Function
When we communicate, we are always trying to put forth a particular view of the world
External Deviation
Something stands out in comparison to our overall understanding of language
Internal Deviation
Something stands out compared to the rest of the text
Naming and Describing
How speakers/writers use syntax to name and describe people and things
-Mainly realised through NP’s
-Its function is to point to things that exist in the world and describe them in some way
Reference
The relationship between language and the real world
Sense
Intra linguistic elements
Describing a Referent (Three main ways)
1) Choice of noun e.g Activists vs Rioters. These two words are similar but denote slightly different meanings
2)The full content of the NP – the bits that modify the head noun e.g the leader gave a speech. That hopeless leader gave a speech. Our hopeless despotic leader gave a speech. Their hopeless despotic leader who will wreck the country gave a speech
-Extra adjectives for examples can describe more of a referent
3) Nominalisation – Where a noun is used to refer to a process (Noun given a verby feel in the sentence). E.g The accidental shooting of the thief was unfortunate. The destruction of Western civilization is nigh
