THEODICIES AND PROCESS THOUGHT

Question 1

Define the term “THEODICY”

Answer 1

A theodicy is a justification of God- attempting to reach the “big picture” conclusion about why things exist (including the possibility of a “purpose” of the existence of evil.

Seeks to explain the existence of evil whilst retaining the 3 attributes of the God of classical theism.

General aim is to show God is fair to allow the existence of evil and suffering as they are in some way, necessary.

Question 2

How does Augustine view God?

Answer 2

• God is triune.
• God is the creator.
• God did not create evil, and is justified in allowing it to stay.
• God’s creation was faultless.

Question 3

What are the 9 points Augustine makes in his theodicy?

Answer 3

1) God is perfect. He made a world free from flaws- he is therefore not responsible for evil.
2) Evil is a privation- he therefore did not create it.
3) Evil comes from fallen angels/human beings (free will) - God is justified in allowing it and is right to not intervene this would affect human free will.
4) The possibility of evil in a created world is necessary.
5) Everyone is guilty because everyone was seminally present in the loins of Adam- God is justified in allowing this deserved punishment.
6) Suffering is just a consequence of sin- humans deserve punishment.
7) Natural evil is a fitting punishment.
8) Augustine’s principle of plentitude- God is justified in allowing evil as he understands its value/use.
9) Augustine’s aesthetics argument- God is justified in allowing it - he is omniscient and can see that the whole world is good overall in spite of evil.

Question 4

Explain 1) God is perfect. He made a world free from flaws.

Answer 4

• Augustine looks at the story from Genesis as evidence for this.
• “God saw everything that he made, and indeed, it was very good”.

Question 5

Explain 2) Evil as a privation (privation boni)

Answer 5

• A privation is therefore falling short of something’s true nature.
• God created everything out of nothing- his creation was good and evil free, evil therefore cannot be part of God’s creation so evil cannot be a thing. It must be the absence of something.
• St Augustine believed that evil was simply a lack of good- compared blindness to the absence of sight- sight is a substance whereas blindness is the absence of this substance.
• Evil is a result of the fall of man and is therefore the absence of good.

Question 6

Explain 3) Evil comes from fallen angels/humans (beings with free will.

Answer 6

• Everything is good.
• People and angels make wrong choices (free will) and turn their attention away from God.
• Things are less good.
• The misuse of free will unbalanced the harmony of God’s creation.
• Adam and Eve disobeyed God.
• Lucifer chose to rebel against God (fallen angel).
• First sin caused the world to be distanced from God (original sin).
• Remote from God, moral evil flourished as people ignored God’s commandments.

Question 7

Explain 4) The possibility of evil in a created world is necessary.

Answer 7

• The world was creating and is constantly evolving - it is not perfect like God.
• Only eternal things can be perfect as they do not change/end. If they change/end they therefore become less perfect.
• Since the world is not perfect, it can change and become less good.
• A changeable created world therefore must have the possibility of evil in it.

Question 8

Explain 5) Everyone is guilty because everyone was seminally present in the loins of Adam.

Answer 8

• Since all humans are “seminally present in the loins of Adam” we are all born with the original sin.
• Inherited desire to sin.
• We all bear the guilt.
• All people are equally guilty because of their presence - including what would deem as “innocent babies”.

Question 9

Explain 6) Suffering is just a consequence of sin - humans deserve punishment.

Answer 9

• Natural and moral evils are caused by humans / angels but are both allowed as a form of punishment.
• Augustine saw being distanced from God as a punishment- this leads to humans further thinking they know best and not following God’s commandments (a spiritual blindness that causes an individual to turn away from God).
• “Do not murder”, “do not steal”- when not followed will lead to suffering.

Question 10

Explain 7) Natural evil is a fitting punishment.

Answer 10

• Natural evil came about because humans disrupted the natural order of God’s creation.
• Natural evil is a consequence of rebellion- which has prevented God’s creation from achieving it’s true nature.
• Since the original sin, humans would have enmity with other creatures, pain in childbirth, painful battles to grow enough food and death.

Question 11

Explain 8) Augustine’s principle of plentitude.

Answer 11

• World appears unequal and unfair- some have short and painful lives, whereas others have long and seemingly happy lives.
• Diversity in the world is actually a good thing as by creating a world with such a range of things, God has created a perfect world where diversity contributes to the perfection of the whole.
• Only God is capable of seeing the whole perspective

Question 12

Explain 9) Augustine’s aesthetics argument.

Answer 12

• God’s omnibenevolence is highlighted further as he shows mercy by saving some through the grace of Jesus. Everyone should go to their rightful punishment of hell but God will save some due to Jesus’ death and resurrection. (This emphasises the omnibenevolence of God even though evil is not his fault, he came down to earth as Jesus to help people and fix the problem).
• World appears evil when taken in isolation.
• In the context of the final judgement, evil will be punished, wrongs will be righted and God’s grace will prevail- the whole creation is good.
• God is omniscient so can see the bigger picture.
• Evil magnifies the goodness of the whole.

“The beauty of a picture is increased by well-managed shadows”- “The universe is beautified even by sinners, though considered by itself, their deformity is a sad blemish”.

Question 13

What are the strengths of Augustine’s theodicy?

Answer 13

1) Free will must necessarily entail the possibility of moral evil to have true freedom (links to the free will defence.
2) Alvin Plantinga: agrees that without free will humans would be like pre-programmed robots with their choices predetermined.
3) Without natural evil, there would be no total freedom- less freedom to be courageous or compassionate as there would be fewer opportunities.
4) Many people would support the argument that free will is so valuable that it justifies the risk of evil- without free will their humanity would be destroyed.
5) Without genuine free will humans could not choose to have a relationship with God and faith would be meaningless.
6) Christians believe in the day of judgement- because evil is punishment, God’s world can be seen as perfect in the end.
7) Augustine’s account is compatible with the Biblical accounts of the creation.
8) Brain Davis agrees that evil cannot be called a substance. Criticism cannot therefore be made about God’s creation.
9) We can see evidence of evil and suffering as a result of human choices (abuse of free will makes sense).

Question 14

Explain the logical errors of Augustine’s theodicy.

Answer 14

1) Schleiermacher- there is a logical contradiction in suggesting that a perfectly created world can go wrong as this suggests that evil has created itself out of nothing. Either the world began imperfect or God enabled it to go wrong.
2) Flaws in God’s creation if angels were not created equally good- why did some rebel and others not?
3) God knew that free will would lead to evil and did nothing to stop it.
4) Free will yet no knowledge of good or evil? - Must have been knowledge of evil in order to choose it.
5) If humans are truly free to make their own decisions they must have permission to make any choice therefore God’s permission to commit evil.

Question 15

Explain the scientific errors of Augustine’s theodicy.

Answer 15

1) John Hick- depends on a literal interpretation of Genesis 3 which modern Science has largely rejected.
2) Not fair that God would punish people fro the wrongs of past generations.
3) Jeremiah: In those days people will no longer say “The parents have eaten sour grapes, and the children’s teeth are set on edge”- instead everyone will die for their own sin, whoever eats sour grapes- their own teeth will be set on edge.
4) Evolution suggests that the universe is growing towards perfection so wasn’t perfect initially.
5) Humans grew across the globe and before that from apes (Adam and Eve were not the first two humans so humanity could not have been seminally present in the loins of Adam.
6) Being seminally present is biologically incorrect.

Question 16

Outline the moral problems with Augustine’s theodicy.

Answer 16

1) Unfair that he forgives some but not all since everyone deserves punishment- why are only some going to heaven. Couldn’t he have saved all if he is omnibenevolent?
2) John Hick- manufacturer is responsible for faults in product especially since he knew it was going to be faulty.
3) Deliberately creating people to spend eternity in hell is not all loving. The existence of hell suggests that evil and punishment was planned.
4) If evil contributes to the good of the whole, it isn’t fair to punish humans for evil.

Question 17

What was the focal point of Hick’s soul making theodicy?

Answer 17

• He rejected Augustine’s theodicy as a harsh view on the human condition, as it seemed to imply we were eternally doomed due to the fall.
• Rather Hick suggests that perfection is a future event to work towards rather than something in the past.
• Both moral and natural evils are essential for soul-making.
• This allows God to be justified in creating this world and allowing evil to prevail.

Question 18

Explain the 5 themes of Hick’s soul making theodicy.

Answer 18

1) Two stage creation process.
2) Suffering as an opportunity.
3) God is at epistemic distance.
4) The world is not a paradise.
5) The need for an afterlife.

Question 19

Explain the 1st theme of Hick’s theodicy and what does he base this on.

Answer 19

TWO STAGE CREATION PROCESS:

• Hick claims that instead of creating humans as morally perfect beings from the outset God deliberately left them imperfect or “unfinished”.
• This enables them to complete the second stage of the process themselves.
• Hick bases this on a passage from Genesis stating that humans are created as children of God in the image of God- but states that humans have the potential to develop further personally and morally into the likeness of God. Fulfilling God’s purpose for humanity “The bringing of the many sons to glory”.

Question 20

Explain the 2nd theme of Hick’s theodicy.

Answer 20

SUFFERING AS AN OPPORTUNITY:

• Augustine’s view of a perfect world went wrong as incoherent and contradictory and argued that, if humans were MADE good, then it should have been IMPOSSIBLE for them to make an immoral decision.
• God is partly responsible for suffering in the world as he uses it as a tool through which humans can grow- giving him sufficiently good reason and not allowing questioning of his omnibenevolence or omnipotence.
• E.g. without a dangerous situation someone could not show and develop courage and without seeing suffering someone could not show or develop compassion- allows us to develop virtues such as love, courage, resilience, patience and improve our souls.
• Allowed this to occur naturally rather than create humans as perfect because “virtues formed by personal challenge are intrinsically more valuable than virtues created readily within him without effort on his own part.”.

Question 21

How might it be argued that God allowing suffering as an opportunity amplifies his omnibenevolence?

Answer 21

Because God is truly showing his love for humans by allowing evil to destroy his creation in order to allow us the opportunity to grow.

Question 22

Explain the 3rd theme of Hick’s soul making theodicy.

Answer 22

GOD IS AT EPISTEMIC DISTANCE:

• If God created us so we truly understood his omnipotence or omniscience - we would be completely overwhelmed by this idea. We would not feel free because we would understand God knows of everything we do.
• God chose to make us aware but not certain, leaving a gap in our knowledge, without an INNATE KNOWLEDGE and understanding between God and us.
• If we knew he existed we wouldn’t have a choice but to obey- removing our free will.

Question 23

Explain the 4th theme in Hick’s theodicy.

Answer 23

THE WORLD IS NOT A PARADISE:

• Evil is useful, if the world was a paradise humans couldn’t create harm and all choices would result in happiness.
• Humans would therefore be robots and not truly free.
• Removing the ability to develop into the likeness of God.
• God therefore chose to create an imperfect world to give humans the opportunity to develop virtues themselves by overcoming difficulties and temptations.
• God has given us the best world in which to develop.

Question 24

Explain the 5th and final theme in Hick’s theodicy.

Answer 24

THE NEED FOR AN AFTERLIFE:

• It is not possible to grow towards the likeness of God in one’s lifetime (except saints).
• Humans must complete the process in the afterlife.
• All people will become “children of God” and “inherit eternal life”.
• Genuine human development doesn’t always happen- we must be given the chance to develop fully.
• If life ended at death there’d be no point in developing into God’s likeness.
• Only a supreme future in heaven can justify the suffering God has put us through on earth.
• Many evil people are just victims who have been raised badly- it is essential to God’s justice that no one is overlooked.

Question 25

What are the strengths of Hick’s soul making theodicy?

Answer 25

1) It is a logical explanation.
2) Compatible with evolution.
3) Compatible with Free Will.
4) Vardy supports the analogy of the peasant girl- humans need freedom to develop and become like God in order to have a relationship with him. Epistemic distance is therefore needed.
5) Supported by empiricism. We do develop these virtues through struggles (e.g. Sacha Kindred the Paralympic swimmer).
6) Explains how God could exist alongside evil- offering an answer to the inconsistent triad.
7) Supported by the Christian Tradition.

Question 26

What are the weaknesses of Hick’s theodicy?

Answer 26

1) Unjust that we all go to heaven.
2) Doesn’t explain the extent of suffering.
3) Doesn’t explain pointless suffering where no good is gained (abortions/infanticide).
4) God shows favouritism - why did James Bulgar suffer more?
5) Doesn’t explain injustice of suffering.
6) Doesn’t explain animal suffering- Christians don’t generally accept that animals go to heaven.
7) Does the end justify the means? Is suffering worth it?
8) If the end result of heaven is guaranteed, then what is the point in the journey. This gives no incentive to do good.
9) Could be argued to make the death of Jesus unnecessary- did he need to die if we will all be saved.
20) Debatable whether love can be expressed by allowing suffering.

Question 27

What is the aim of process thought?

Answer 27

The aim of process thought is to respond to the challenge that the amount of suffering in the cold is too great and often unjust to be explained by the suggestion that it is for the development of human virtues.

(Responding to the criticisms of Hick’s theodicy).

Question 28

Why is process thought not accepted as a theodicy?

Answer 28

Because it accepts Hume’s view that evil is incompatible with the God of classical theism.

Question 29

What are the 4 themes in Process thought?

Answer 29

1) God’s role in creation.
2) God’s limitations.
3) God suffers.
4) The purpose of evil.

Question 30

Explain God’s role in creation in process thought.

Answer 30

• Uses the alternative Hebrew translation- “When God began to create, the world was without form and void”.
• The universe is eternal; God is immanent not transcendent- he could not create the laws of the universe so he is limited to them and therefore omnipotent.
• He could only develop what was already there i.e. kickstarted the process of evolution- wanting it to move towards harmony and intensity- but as it becomes more complex GOOD AND EVIL INTENSIFY and are felt more deeply .
• Humans develop and asset their own influence as God’s control lessens as humans ignore God
• Their knowledge of God will is limited and they are not made in God’s likeness.

Question 31

Explain how God is limited in process thought.

Answer 31

• God’s limited power means he cannot stop evil.
• However, he is still responsible for it since he started the process of ordering the universe despite knowing he couldn’t control it.
• Explains why God took this risk rather than leaving the matter without form and void.
• The good things outweigh the Bad- God was right to choose this world rather than no world at all.

Question 32

Explain how God suffers in process thought.

Answer 32

• God suffers along with the world overtime his creative desires are frustrated.
• God is affected by the world but cannot control it.
• God actively participates in the struggles and concerns of the world.
• God is “the fellow sufferer who understands” (White head).
• Humans can therefore cannot condemn God when he suffers unimaginably more than anyone else as he experiences ALL suffering.
• Humans do not know better than God whether this is worthwhile or not.

Question 33

What is the purpose of evil in process thought?

Answer 33

• Evil is not just actions which brings about suffering but also missed opportunities to do good.
• Generates a desire for a better world.
• Suffering can only be eradicated by ending humanity, and having a humanity that suffers is better than having no humanity at all.

Question 34

What was Griffin’s view of the role of Natural and Moral evil in process thought?

Answer 34

• Moral evil is never going to be so great that it would be better to not have a world.
• Natural evil is the result of creatures deviating from God’s will.
• God was not working with perfect materials to begin with then there is scope for natural disasters when the materials fail.

Question 35

What are the strengths of process thought?

Answer 35

• Removes problem of an omnipotent God allowing evil: he cannot.
• Avoids the suggestion that God is not all loving.
• Encouraging that God also suffers- enabling a better relationship.
• Reassuring that God suffers but thinks the process is worth it.
• No assurance that God will triumph, encouraging people to join the effort against evil. Does not encourage inertia like other theodicies do.

Question 36

What are the weaknesses of process thought?

Answer 36

• Not actually a theodicy- as it does not justify the God of classical theism.
• A being of limited power would not be worthy of worship.
• Christian God also suffers, not just process God (i.e. Jesus incarnate).
• Does not right the wrongs of evil as the Christian God will.
• Offers no solution for helplessness so is not worth worshipping.
• No certain “good” future may fill some with desperation: what is the point of trying if it may fail.
• Good justifies evil: not for those who have only experienced suffering i.e. Holocaust victims.
• No promises of heaven: sufferers may not be compensated.
• He may have suffered more than everyone, but he must also have experienced more joy, so God may think it outweighs evil, but this may not be the case for everyone.

Question 37

How did Aquinas develop Augustine’s theodicy?

Answer 37

• Aquinas acknowledges that God could have created “better” universe but crucially, emphasises this would be a different universe and no longer our own.
• Sin enhances the universe “Many good things would be taken away if God permitted no evil to exists.
• “Evil is an instrumental value in developing human virtues such as patience”.

Question 38

How did John Calvin develop Augustine’s theodicy?

Answer 38

• Greater reliance on biblical teachings rather than the philosophical argument.
• Both natural and moral evil Adam is to blame “Adam’s choice of good and evil was free”.
• God pre-destined all of this- showing he actively willed people into damnation.
• Only makes an explicit theme which was already held in Augustine’s theodicy.

Question 39

How did Leibniz develop Augustine’s theodicy?

Answer 39

• Our world is best possible world.
• Contains the greatest variety and quantity of beings.
• “Most reality, most perfection and most significance possible”.
• “God could not fail to act in the most perfect way and subsequently chose the best”.